John Łaski (1499-1560), nephew of the primate of the same name, was the most ardent and conspicuous Polish humanist and patron of humanists before his acceptance of the Reformation and his break with the established church. He had spent some time with Erasmus at Basel, purchased the great scholar’s wonderful library, the use of which, however, he left to his master until his death, and on his return home in 1526 became a zealous promoter of humanistic studies in his own country and the most distinguished patron of a number of young Polish humanists, among whom were Modrzewski, Andrew Trzycieski, Rullus, Hosius; the Silesians, Pyrser, Lang, Ephorinus, Frederick of Freistadt; the Hungarian Antoninus, the Frenchman Aignan Bourgoin, known also as Anian, and the Englishman Coxe.[183]
Andrew Frycz Modrzewski (1503-1572) was educated at the universities of Cracow and Wittenberg, and at the latter institution he became intimately acquainted with Melanchthon. On his return to Poland he became secretary to Prince Sigismund Augustus. In 1546 he joined the Cracow circle of humanistic religious reformers, to which belonged Andrew Trzycieski, a fellow student of Modrzewski at Cracow, the publisher Wojewódka, the jurist James Przyłuski, James Uchański, deacon of the Cathedral Chapter, later archbishop and primate of Poland, Zebrzydowski, also deacon of the Cathedral Chapter and later bishop of Cracow, Lismanini, the Franciscan confessor of the queen, and others. In 1554 he published in Basel in the establishment of John Oporin his De republica emendanda, the fourth part of which consisted of his intended work, De Ecclesia, in which he dealt with the problem of church reform. Modrzewski was primarily a humanist, secondarily an advocate of religious reform. He strongly favored the establishment of a national church, independent of papal jurisdiction,[184] and leaned toward Calvinism.[185]
In the first half of the sixteenth century humanism reached the height of its development and influence in Poland, and as a result brought about a radical mental and spiritual change. It freed the individual from the mediaeval burden of religious and intellectual authority; and while it did in turn impose new authorities, yet it awakened a sense of criticism, of intellectual and spiritual inquiry, and of independent judgment.[186] This new critical attitude of mind constituted a well prepared soil for the reception, growth, and development of the new seed of religious reform. This accounts in a large measure for the easy and rapid spread of the Reformation in Poland. In their search for truth the humanists disregarded the authority of the church, and subjected the established faith and ecclesiastical order to criticism. Criticism led, in turn, to rebellion against the dogmas of the church and its organization.[187]
Another factor contributing to the spread of the Reformation in Poland was the art of printing. The first printed book, Gutenberg’s Bible, appeared from the press at Munich in the year 1455. Ten years later books in the Latin language were printed in Cracow by a certain Gunther Zainer, who, it is claimed, had been invited to Cracow by the University.[188] Later Zainer is said to have removed to Augsburg, where he was to open a permanent printing establishment.[189] The earliest known print struck off in Cracow was a calendar for the year 1474, Calendarium anni Domini 1474 currentis, a copy of which is preserved in the library of the University of Cracow.[190] Immediately following this publication there appeared two editions of Joannis de Turrecremata Explanatio in Psalterium Davidi, the first in 1473-1474, the second in 1475. Until recently this book was regarded as the earliest publication printed in Poland.[191] Contemporaneously with Turrecremata’s work there appeared from the press in Cracow two other interesting books, namely, St. Augustine’s Opuscula, de doctrina christiana, de praedestinatione Sanctorum (1473-1474), and Franciscus de Platea’s Opus restitutionem, usurarum et excommunicationum (1475).[192]
Books in the Slavic language in cyrilic characters were printed in Cracow as early as 1491 by a certain enterprising German printer from Neustadt, Franconia, by the name of Schwaipolt Fiol.[193] In 1492 Fiol was summoned before an ecclesiastical court to be tried for openly expressing heretical opinions. After that nothing more is heard of his printing and publishing activity.[194] The first Polish book was printed in Breslau in 1475. Its title was Statuta synodalia Wratislawiensia episcopi Conradi Oelsnensis, item statuta episcoporum Petri Nowak et Rudolphi Ruedesheimii, and it contained in Polish the Lord’s Prayer, Ave Maria, and the Apostles’ Creed. A copy of this book is to be found in the British Museum.[195]
Whatever printing was done in Cracow in the second half of the fifteenth century was, however, sporadic. Permanent printing and publishing business had not been established until the beginning of the sixteenth century. This was first accomplished in 1503 by John Haller, a merchant of Cracow, who imported a printer from Metz, Caspar Hochfeder by name, with all necessary equipment. Chmielowski claims that Hochfeder was the printer who had previously been in Cracow and had printed Turrecremata’s, Augustine’s, and de Platea’s works, and not Zainer. It is also known that in this undertaking Haller was assisted by Georg Stuchs von Sulzbach. From this time on Cracow had a permanent printing establishment, owned and managed by John Haller. This enterprising merchant owned also a paper mill and maintained a bookstore.[196] After Haller’s death in 1525 the business was efficiently carried on by his widow, and merited a considerable degree of renown.[197]
Encouraged by the example and success of Haller’s enterprise, others soon entered the publishing business, and the number of printing presses in Cracow multiplied rapidly. In the first half of the sixteenth century the Polish capital was the proud possessor of the printing establishments of Florian Ungler, Hieronimus Wietor, Matthew Scharffenberger, Siebeneicher, Wierzbięta, Lazarus Andrysowicz, and of Piotrkowczyk.[198] Ungler was the first one of the Cracow printer-publishers to attempt Polish prints. Among his employees was a certain John of Sącz (Jan z Sącza), who later became a very active promoter of Polish printing. In 1533 this John of Sącz, known now also as Małecki and Sandecki, had a printing establishment in Pułtusk. By 1536 we find him in East Prussia at first as printer-publisher and afterwards as Lutheran pastor and superintendent at Elck.[199] Ungler’s successors became Stanislaus of Zakliczyn and Gregory Przeworski.[200] The largest and best in point of output and quality of work was the printing establishment of Andrysowicz. By it were printed the constitutions of the Polish Diet, Wujek’s Bible, and many other important and valuable books of the sixteenth century.[201]
In the years 1503-1536 there were published in Cracow alone two hundred ninety-four printed books, or as many as in the whole of England in the same period.[202] Thus, the Polish capital became the centre of cultural activity, not only for Poland, but also for eastern and south-eastern Europe. “The earliest books for Hungary, Moldavia, Transylvania, Ruthenia, and Lithuania were printed in Cracow.”[203]
But Cracow was not the only Polish city in which printing establishments were to be found. Other cities had them, too. In the first half of the sixteenth century printing establishments were found in Wilno, Pułtusk, and Poznań. Later, in the course of the second half of the same century, printing presses were established in Lublin, Brześć-Litewski, Kowno, Łosk, Nieświez, Łowicz, Płock, Kalisz, Pińczów, Raków, Zamość, Warsaw, Gdańsk, Chełm, Lwów, Kiev, and other provincial cities and towns.[204]
Moreover, many of the Polish printer-publishers were either open adherents of the Reformation or in sympathy with it. Some of the Cracow printers, though remaining in the Catholic Church, yet for the sake of business printed and circulated Protestant books. Wietor, suspected of heresy, had to make a confession of the Catholic faith before an episcopal tribunal. The printer Andrysowicz was placed on the index.[205] Some were open adherents of the Reformation. The court printer, Michael Wierzbięta, was a Calvinist, an elder in the Reformed Church of Cracow, and in his establishment were printed Calvinistic books and pamphlets as well as many of the best Polish literary productions of the time.[206] Alexander Rodecki, another Cracow printer-publisher, conducting printing establishments also at Raków and at Łosk, was an Arian. His daughter Judith married Sebestian Sternacki, who was also a publisher of Arian literature at Cracow and Raków. Sebestian Sternacki’s son, Paul, married Catharine Siebeneicher, and continued as publisher of Arian literature.[207] Other Protestant printers were Daniel of Łęczyca, an itinerant printer, Bernard Wojewódka, active at Brześć-Litewski, and Cyprian Bazylik, who married a niece of one of the earliest Cracow printers, Wolfgang Lerma von Pfaffenhoffen.[208]