Elements of Morals / With Special Application of the Moral Law to the Duties of the Individual and of Society and the State

by Paul Janet

Since Plato, there is scarcely any but the socialist Saint-Simon who attempted to classify the social careers. He reduces them to three groups: industrials, artists, and scientists (savants). The meaning of this classification is this: the object of human labor, according to Saint-Simon, is the cultivation of the globe—that is to say, the greatest possible production; but this is the object of productive labor; it is what is called industry. Now, the cultivation of nature requires a knowledge of nature’s laws, namely, science. Science and invention are, then, the two great branches of social activity. According to Saint-Simon, work—that is to say, industry—must take the place of war; science, that of the laws. Hence no warriors, no magistrates; or, rather, the scientists (savants) should be the true magistrates. Science and industry, however, having only relation to material nature, Saint-Simon thought there was a part to be given to the moral order, to the beautiful or the good; hence a third class, which he now calls artists, now moralists and philosophers, and to whom a sort of religious rôle is assigned. It will be seen that this theory is absolutely artificial and utopian, that it has relation to an imaginary system, and not to the order of things as it is: it is an ingenious conception, but quite impracticable.

One of the greatest of modern moralists, the German philosopher Fichte, assigned, in his Practical Morality, a part to the doctrine of professional duties; and he began by giving a theory of the professions more complete and satisfactory than any of the preceding ones.

Fichte makes of the special professions two great divisions: 1, those which have for their object the keeping up of material life; 2, those which have for their object the keeping up of intellectual and moral life. On the one side, mechanical labor; on the other, intellectual and moral labor.

The object of mechanical labor is production, manufacture, and exchange of produce; hence three functions: those of producers, manufacturers, and merchants.

The moral and spiritual labor has also three objects: 1, the administration of justice in the State; 2, the theoretic culture of intelligence; 3, the moral culture of the will. Hence three classes: 1, public functions; 2, science and instruction; 3, the Church and the clergy. Lastly, there is in human nature a faculty which serves as a link between the theoretical and the practical faculties: it is the esthetic sense; the sense of the beautiful; hence a last class, that of artists.

This theory is more scientific than that of the Saint-Simonians, but it is still somewhat defective; it is not clear, for example, in a moral point of view, that there is a great difference of duties between the producers, manufacturers, and merchants: they are economical rather than moral distinctions. Plato’s division is better, when he puts the farmers in opposition to the artisans. It is certain that there are, especially in these days, interesting moral questions, which differ according as the workmen live in the city or in the country. We therefore prefer on this point Plato’s division; and we will treat, on the one side, industry and commerce, and on the other agriculture; and in each of these divisions we will distinguish those who direct or remunerate the work, namely, contractors, masters, proprietors, capitalists in some degree, and those who work with their hands and receive wages.

In characterizing the second class of careers, those which have moral interests for their object, we will again borrow of Plato one of the names of his division, namely, the defense of the State. As to the administration of justice in the State, it is divided, as we have already said, into three powers: the executive, legislative, and judicial powers. Hence three orders of functions: administration, deputation, and the magistracy, with which latter is connected the bar.

As to science, it is either speculative or practical.

In the first case, it only concerns the individual; we have spoken of it under individual duties (ch. iv.). In the second case, it has for its object application, and bears either on things or on men.

Applied to things, science is associated with the industry we have already spoken of. Applied to men, it is medicine, in respect to bodies; morality or religion, in respect to hearts and souls.