The marshes where these trees grow are called Cedar Swamps. These cedar swamps [[175]]are numerous in New Jersey, and likewise in some parts of Pensylvania and New York. The most northerly place, where it has been hitherto found, is near Goshen in New York, under forty-one degrees and twenty-live minutes of north latitude, as I am informed by Dr. Colden. For to the North of Goshen, it has not been found in the woods. The white cedar is one of the trees, which resist the most to putrefaction; and when it is put above ground, it will last longer than under ground: therefore it is employed for many purposes; it makes good fences, and posts which are to be put into the ground; but in this point, the red cedar is still preferable to the white; it likewise makes good canoes. The young trees are employed for hoops, round barrels, tuns, &c. because they are thin and pliable; the thick and tall trees afford timber, and wood for cooper’s work. The houses which are built of it, surpass in duration, those which are built of American oak. Many of the houses in Rapaapo were made of this white cedar wood; but the chief thing which the white cedar affords is the best kind of shingles. The white cedar shingles are preferred to all others for several reasons; first, they are more durable than any others made of American wood, the red cedar shingles [[176]]excepted; secondly, they are very light, so that no strong beams are requisite to support the roof. For the same reason it is unnecessary to build thick walls, because they are not pressed by heavy roofs. When fires break out, it is less dangerous to go under or along the roofs, because the shingles being very light can do little hurt by falling; they suck the water, being somewhat spungy, so that the roofs can easily be wetted in case of a fire: however, their fatness occasions that the water does not hurt them, but evaporates easily. When they burn and are carried about by the wind, they have commonly what is called a dead coal, which does not easily set fire where it alights. The roofs made of these shingles can easily be cut through, if required, because they are thin, and not very hard; for these qualities the people in the country, and in the towns, are very desirous of having their houses covered with white cedar shingles, if the wood can be got. Therefore all churches, and the houses of the more substantial inhabitants of the towns, have shingle roofs. In many parts of New York province, where the white cedar does not grow, the people, however, have their houses roofed with cedar shingles, which they get from other parts. To that purpose great quantities of shingles are annually exported from Eggharbour and [[177]]other parts of New Jersey, to the town of New York, from whence they are distributed throughout the province. A quantity of white cedar wood is likewise exported every year to the West Indies, for shingles, pipe staves, &c. Thus the inhabitants are very busy here, not only to lessen the number of these trees, but even to extirpate them entirely. They are here (and in many other places) in regard to wood, bent only upon their own present advantage, utterly regardless of posterity. By this means many cedar swamps are already quite destitute of cedars, having only young shoots left; and I plainly observed, by counting the circles round the stem, that they do not grow up very quickly, but require a great deal of time before they can be cut for timber. It is well known that a tree gets only one circle every year; a stem, eighteen inches in diameter, had one hundred and eight circles round the thicker end; another, seventeen inches in diameter, had a hundred and sixteen; and another, two feet in diameter, had one hundred and forty-two circles upon it. Thus near eighty years growth is required, before a White cedar raised from seed can be used for timber. Among the advantages which the white cedar shingles have over others, the [[178]]people reckon their lightness. But this good and useful quality may in future times turn out very disadvantageous to Philadelphia, and other places where the houses are rooted with cedar shingles; for as the roofs made of these shingles are very light, and bear but a trifling weight on the walls, so the people have made the walls but very thin. I measured the thickness of the walls of several houses here, of three stories high (cellar and garret not included), and found most of them nine inches and a half, and some ten inches thick; therefore it is by no means surprising, that violent hurricanes sometimes make the brick gable-ends to vibrate apparently, especially on such houses as have a very open situation. And since the cedar-trees will soon be wanting in this country, and the present roofs when rotten must be supplied with heavier ones, of tiles, or of other wood, it is more than probable, that the thin walls will not be able to bear such an additional weight, and will either break, or require to be supported by props: or else the whole house must be pulled down and rebuilt with thicker walls. This observation has already been made by others. Some of the people here make use of the chips of white cedar instead of tea, alluring me that they preferred it in [[179]]regard to its wholesomeness to all foreign tea. All the inhabitants here were of opinion, that the water in the cedar swamps is wholesomer than any other drink: it creates a great appetite, which they endeavoured to prove by several examples. They ascribed this quality to the water itself, which is filled with the rosin of the trees, and to the exhalations which came from the trees, and can easily be smelled. The people likewise thought that the yellowish colour of the water, which stands between the cedar trees, was owing to the rosin, which comes out of the roots of these trees. They likewise all agreed, that this water is always very cold in the hottest season, which may be partly owing to the continual shade it is in. I knew several people who were resolved to go to these cedar swamps, and use the waters for the recovery of their appetite. Mr. Bartram planted a white cedar in a dry soil, but it could not succeed there: he then put it into a swampy ground, where it got as it were new life, and came on very well; and though it was not taller than a man, yet it was full of cones. Another thing is very remarkable, with regard to the propagation of this tree: Mr. Bartram cut its branches in spring two years successively, and put them into the swampy soil, [[180]]where they struck roots, and succeeded very well. I have seen them myself.
The red Juniper-tree is another tree which I have mentioned very frequently in the course of my account. The Swedes have given it the name of red Juniper, because the wood is very red and fine within. The English call it red Cedar, and the French Cedre rouge. However, the Swedish name is the most proper, as the tree belongs to the Junipers[45]. At its first growth it has a deal of similarity to the Swedish Juniper[46], but after it is grown up it gets quite different leaves. The berry exactly resembles that of the Swedish Juniper, in regard to its colour and shape; however, they are not so big, though the red Cedar grows very tall. At Raccoon these trees stood single, and were not very tall. But at other places I have seen them standing together in clusters; they like the same ground as the common Swedish Juniper, especially on the rising banks of rivers, and on other rising grounds, in a dry, and frequently in a poor soil. I have seen them growing in abundance, as thick and tall as the tallest fir-trees, on poor dry and sandy heaths. Towards Canada, or in [[181]]the most northerly places, where I have seen them, they commonly choose the steep sides of the mountains, and there they grow promiscuously with the common Juniper. The most northerly places where I have found them wild in the woods, is in Canada, eighteen French miles to the southward of the Fort Saint Jean, or St. John, in about 44° 35′ North Latitude. I have likewise seen it growing very well in a garden, on the island of Magdalene[47], belonging to the then governor of Montreal, Monsieur le Baron de Longueuil. But it had been got at more southerly places, and was transplanted here. Of all the woods in this country, this is without exception the most durable, and withstands putrefaction longer than any other; it is therefore employed in all such cases where it is most liable to rot, especially for all kinds of posts which are to be put into the ground. Some people say, that if an iron be put into the ground along with a pole of cedar, the iron would be half corroded by rust in the same time that the wood would be rotten. In many places both the fences, and the posts belonging to them, are made [[182]]of red cedar. The best canoes, consisting of a single piece of wood, are made of red cedar; for they last longer than any others, and are very light. In New York I have seen pretty large yachts build of red cedar. Several yachts which go from New York to Albany, up the river Hudson, are built in a different manner, as I have mentioned in the first volume[48]. In Philadelphia they cannot make any yachts or other boats of red cedar, because the quantity and the size of the trees will not allow of it. For the same reason they do not roof their houses with red cedar shingles; but in such places where it is plentiful, it makes excellent good roofs. The heart of this cedar is of a fine red colour, and whatever is made of it looks very fine, and has a very agreeable and wholesome smell. But the colour fades by degrees, or else the wood would be exceedingly proper for cabinet work. I saw a parlour in the country seat of Mr. Norris, one of the Members of the Pensylvanian House of Assembly, wainscotted many years ago with boards of red cedar. Mr. Norris assured me that the [[183]]cedar looked exceedingly well in the beginning, but it was quite faded when I saw it, and the boards looked very shabby, especially the boards near the window had entirely lost their colour; so that Mr. Norris had been obliged to put mahogany in their stead: however, I was told, that the wood will keep its colour if a thin varnish is put upon it whilst it is fresh, and just after it has been planed, and if care is taken that the wood is not afterwards rubbed or hurt. At least it makes the wood keep its colour much longer than commonly. Since it has a very pleasant smell, when fresh, some people put the shavings and chips of it among their linen to secure it against being worm-eaten. Some likewise get bureaus, &c. made of red cedar, with the same view. But it is only useful for this purpose as long as it is fresh, for it loses its smell after some time, and is then no longer good for keeping off insects. It is sometimes sent to England, as timber, and sells very well. In many places round Philadelphia, in the seats of the gentry, there was commonly an avenue, with a row of these trees planted on both sides, leading from the high road to the house. The lower branches were cut, and only a fine crown left. In winter, [[184]]when most other trees have lost their leaves, this looks very fine. This tree has likewise a very slow growth; for a stem, thirteen inches and a quarter in diameter, had one hundred and eighty-eight rings, or annual circles and another, eighteen inches in diameter, had at least two hundred and fifty, for a great number of the rings were so fine that they could not be counted. This tree is propagated in the same manner as the common Juniper-tree is in Sweden, viz. chiefly by birds, which eat the berries and emit the seeds entire. To encourage the planting of this useful tree, a description of the method of doing it, written by Mr. Bartram, was inserted in a Pensylvania almanack, called Poor Richard Improved, for the year 1749. In it was explained the manner of planting and augmenting the number of these trees, and mention is made of some of the purposes to which they may be employed.
In the evening I returned to Raccoon.
May the 6th. The Mulberry-trees (Morus rubra) about this time began to blossom, but their leaves were yet very small. The people divided them into male and female trees or flowers; and said that those which never bore any fruit were males, and those which did, females. [[185]]
Smilax laurifolia was superabundant in all the swamps near this place. Its leaves were now beginning to come out, for it sheds them all every winter; it climbs up along trees and shrubs, and runs across from one tree or bush to another: by this means it shuts up the passage between the trees, fastening itself every where with its cirrhi or tendrils, and even on people, so that it is with the utmost difficulty one must force a passage in the swamps and woods, where it is plentiful; the stalk towards the bottom is full of long spines, which are as strong as the spines of a rose-bush, and catch hold of the clothes, and tear them: this troublesome plant may sometimes bring you into imminent danger, when botanizing or going into the woods, for, not to mention that the cloaths must be absolutely ruined by its numberless spines, it occasions a deep shade in the woods, by crossing from tree to tree so often; this forces you to stoop, and even to creep on all fours through the little passages which are left close to the ground, and then you cannot be careful enough to prevent a snake (of which there are numbers here) from darting into your face. The stalk of the plant has the same colour as the young rose-bushes. It is quite green [[186]]and smooth between the spines, so that a stranger would take it to be a kind of thorn-bush, in winter, when it is destitute of leaves.
May the 8th. The trees hereabouts were now stocked with innumerable Caterpillars; one kind especially was observable, which is worse than all the others. They immediately formed great white webs, between the branches of the trees, so that they were perceptible, even at a distance; in each of these webs were thousands of Caterpillars, which crept out of them afterwards, and spread chiefly upon the apple-trees. They consumed the leaves, and often left not one on a whole branch. I was told, that some years ago they did so much damage, that the apple-trees and peach-trees hardly bore any fruit at all; because they had consumed all the leaves, and exposed the naked trees to the intense heat of the sun, by which means several of the trees died. The people took the following method of killing these Caterpillars: They fixed some straw or flax on a pole, set it on fire, and held it under the webs or nests; by which a part was burnt, and a part fell to the ground. However, numbers of the Caterpillars crept up the trees again, which could have been prevented, if they had been [[187]]trod upon, or killed any other way. I called chickens to such places where they crept on the ground in numbers; but they would not eat them. Nor did the wild birds like them; for the trees were full of these webs, though whole flights of little birds had their nests in the gardens and orchards.
May the 18th. Though it was already pretty late in May, yet the nights were very dark here. About an hour after sun-set, it was so dark, that it was impossible to read in a book, though the type was ever so large. About ten o’clock, on a clear night, the dark was so much increased, that it looked like one of the darkest star-light nights in autumn, in Sweden. It likewise seemed to me, that though the nights were clear, yet the stars did not give so great a light as they do in Sweden. And as, about this time, the nights are commonly dark, and the sky covered with clouds; so I would compare them only to dark and cloudy Swedish winter nights. It was therefore, at this time of the year, very difficult to travel in such cloudy nights; for neither man nor horse could find their way. The nights, in general, seem very disagreeable to me, in comparison to the light and glorious, summer nights of Sweden. Ignorance sometimes makes us think slightly of [[188]]our country. If other countries have their advantages, Sweden is not destitute of matter to boast of on this head: it likewise has its peculiar advantages; and upon weighing the advantages and inconveniencies of different places, Sweden will be found to be not inferior to any of them.
I will briefly mention in what points I think Sweden is preferable to this part of America; and why I prefer Old Sweden to New Sweden.
The nights are very dark here all the summer; and in winter, they are quite as dark, if not darker, than the winter nights in Sweden; for here is no kind of Aurora Borealis, and the stars give a very faint light. It is very remarkable if an Aurora Borealis appears once or twice a year. The winters here bring no snow, to make the nights clear, and to make travelling more safe and easy. The cold is, however, frequently as intense as in Old Sweden. The snow which falls lies only a few days, and always goes off with a great deal of wet. The Rattle-snakes, Horned-snakes, red-bellied, green, and other poisonous Snakes, against whose bite there is frequently no remedy, are in great plenty here. To these I must add the wood-lice, with which the forests are so pestered, that it is impossible to pass through a bush without [[189]]having a whole army of them on your cloaths, or to sit down, though the place be ever so pleasant. The inconvenience and trouble they cause, both to man and beast, I have described in the Memoirs of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The weather is so inconstant here, that when a day is most excessively hot, the next is often sensibly cold. This sudden change often happens in one day; and few people can suffer these changes, without impairing their health. The heat in summer is excessive, and the cold in winter often very piercing. However, one can always secure one’s self against the cold; but when the great heat is of any duration, there is hardly any remedy against it. It tires one so, that one does not know which way to turn. It has frequently happened, that people who walked into the fields, dropped down dead, on account of the violence of the heat. Several distempers prevail here; and they increase every year. Nobody is left unattacked by the intermitting fever; and many people are forced to suffer it every year, together with other diseases. Pease cannot be sown, on account of the insects which consume them[49]. There are worms in the grains of rye, and numbers of them are in the cherry-trees. [[190]]The caterpillars often eat all the leaves from the trees, so that they cannot bear fruit in that year; and numbers die every year, both of fruit-trees and forest-trees. The grass in the meadows is likewise consumed by a kind of worms, and another species cause the plumbs to drop, before they are half ripe. The oak here affords not near so good timber as the European oak. The fences cannot stand above eighteen years. The houses are of no long duration. The meadows are poor, and what grass they have is bad. The pasture for cattle in the forests, consists of such plants as they do not like, and which they are compelled to eat by necessity; for it is difficult to find a single grass in great forests, where the trees stand far asunder, and where the soil is excellent. For this reason, the cattle are forced, during almost the whole winter and part of the summer, to live upon the young shoots and branches of trees, which sometimes have no leaves: therefore, the cows give very little milk, and decrease in size every generation. The houses are extremely unfit for winter habitations. Hurricanes are frequent, which overthrow trees, carry away roofs, and sometimes houses, and do a great deal of damage. Some of these inconveniencies might be remedied by art; [[191]]but others will either admit of no alteration, or they will at least cost vast trouble. Thus every country has its advantages, and its defects: happy is he who can content himself with his own.
The rye grows very ill in most of the fields, which is chiefly owing to the carelessness in agriculture, and to the poorness of the fields, which are seldom or never manured. After the inhabitants have converted a tract of land into fields, which had been a forest for many centuries together, and which consequently had a very fine soil, they use it as such, as long as it will bear any corn; and when it ceases to bear any, they turn it into pastures for the cattle, and take new corn fields in another place, where a fine soil can be met with, and where it has never been made use of for this purpose. This kind of agriculture will do for some time; but it will afterwards have bad consequences, as every one may clearly see. A few of the inhabitants, however, treated their fields a little better: the English in general have carried agriculture to a higher degree of perfection than any other nation. But the depth and richness of the soil, which those found here who came over from England, (as they were preparing land for ploughing which had been covered [[192]]with woods from times immemorial) misled them, and made them careless husbandmen. It is well known, that the Indians lived in this country for several centuries before the Europeans came into it; but it is likewise known, that they lived chiefly by hunting and fishing, and had hardly any fields. They planted maize, and some species of beans and gourds; and at the same time it is certain, that a plantation of such vegetables as serve an Indian family during one year, take up no more ground than a farmer in our country takes to plant cabbage for his family upon; at least, a farmer’s cabbage and turnep ground, taken together, is always as extensive, if not more so, than the corn-fields and kitchen-gardens of an Indian family. Therefore, the Indians could hardly subsist for one month upon the produce of their gardens and fields. Commonly, the little villages of Indians are about twelve or eighteen miles distant from each other. From hence one may judge, how little ground was formerly employed for corn-fields; and the rest was overgrown with thick and tall trees. And though they cleared (as is yet usual) new ground, as soon as the old one had quite lost its fertility; yet such little pieces as they made use of were very inconsiderable, when compared [[193]]to the vast forests which remained. Thus the upper fertile soil increased considerably, for centuries together; and the Europeans coming to America found a rich and fine soil before them, lying as loose between the trees as the best bed in a garden. They had nothing to do but to cut down the wood, put it up in heaps, and to clear the dead leaves away. They could then immediately proceed to ploughing, which in such loose ground is very easy; and having sown their corn, they got a most plentiful harvest. This easy method of getting a rich crop has spoiled the English and other European inhabitants, and induced them to adopt the same method of agriculture which the Indians make use of; that is, to sow uncultivated grounds, as long as they will produce a crop without manuring, but to turn them into pastures as soon as they can bear no more, and to take in hand new spots of ground, covered since time immemorial with woods, which have been spared by the fire or the hatchet ever since the creation. This is likewise the reason why agriculture, and the knowledge of this useful branch, is so imperfect here, that one can learn nothing on a great tract of land, neither of the English, nor of the Swedes, Germans, Dutch, and French; except that, from their gross mistakes [[194]]and carelessness for futurity, one finds opportunities every day of making all sorts of observations, and of growing wise at the expence of other people. In a word, the corn-fields, the meadows, the forests, the cattle, &c. are treated with equal carelessness; and the English nation, so well skilled in these branches of husbandry, is with difficulty found out here. We can hardly be more lavish of our woods in Sweden and Finland than they are here: their eyes are fixed upon the present gain, and they are blind to futurity. Every day their cattle are harassed by labour, and each generation decreases in goodness and size, by being kept short of food, as I have before mentioned. On my travels in this country I observed several plants, which the horses and cows preferred to all others. They were wild in this country, and likewise grew well on the driest and poorest ground, where no other plants would succeed. But the inhabitants did not know how to turn this to their advantage; owing to the little account made of Natural History, that science being here (as in other parts of the world) looked upon as a mere trifle, and the pastime of fools. I am certain, and my certainty is founded upon experience, that by means of these plants, in the space of a few years, I have [[195]]been able to turn the poorest ground, which would hardly afford food for a cow, into the richest and most fertile meadow, where great flocks of cattle have found superfluous food, and are grown fat upon. I own, that these useful plants were not to be found on the grounds of every planter: but with a small share of natural knowledge, a man would easily collect them in the places where they were to be got. I was astonished, when I heard the country people complaining of the badness of the pastures; but I likewise perceived their negligence, and often saw excellent plants growing on their own grounds, which only required a little more attention and assistance from their unexperienced owners. I found every where the wisdom and goodness of the Creator; but too seldom saw any acknowledgment, or adequate estimation of it, among men.