The History of the European Fauna

by R. F. Scharff

It certainly cannot be denied that a number of species among almost all groups of invertebrates have been unintentionally conveyed by man from Europe into foreign countries. It has been proposed by Dr. von Ihering to apply the term "cenocosmic" to those species which have become spread all over the world through artificial means, and thus to distinguish them from cosmopolitan ones which have attained a similar range naturally. The latter he calls "palincosmic" species (a, p. 422). Many so-called cenocosmic ants are believed by Dr. von Ihering to be palincosmic. We are altogether too apt to regard cosmopolitan as synonymous with introduced, and we should hesitate before concluding that because one of our common European species occurs in Australia or South America, it must have been transported there recently by human agency. Some of our widely-distributed forms are probably of very great antiquity, and may have spread to distant lands in early Tertiary times, when a different state of the geographical conditions enabled them to do so.

I cannot quote a more appropriate instance than the molluscan fauna of Madeira. No less than thirteen of the Madeiran snails are looked upon as having been introduced from Europe by human agency, on the sole evidence that these happen to be common European species. Yet the correctness of this supposition must be questioned in face of the interesting observation made by Darwin (p. 357), "that Madeira and the adjoining islet of Porto Santo possess many distinct but representative species of land-shells, some of which live in crevices of stone; and although large quantities of stone are annually transported from Porto Santo to Madeira, yet this latter island has not become colonised by the Porto Santo species. Nevertheless, both islands have been colonised by European land-shells, which no doubt had some advantage over the indigenous species." Darwin, therefore, meets the evident anomaly by suggesting that the European species are supposed to possess some advantages as colonisers. But the true explanation appears to me to lie in the supposition that the European land-shells found in the Madeiran Islands are all, or for the greater part, ancient forms which survived both there and on the continent, whilst the remainder of the forms inhabiting these islands are either such as are now extinct in Europe, or have become modified since their arrival there from the continent at a time when extensive land-connections allowed a free migration by land.

The theory of accidental introductions is an extremely popular one. It allows free scope to a host of speculations, and once the idea has taken firm root that a certain species is introduced, especially among the class of naturalists who by way of experiment are wont to create new centres of dispersion in their own neighbourhood, evidence to the contrary must be of the most convincing nature to shake the popular belief. Thus, it is almost regarded as an established fact by conchologists and others, that the fresh-water mussel (Dreyssensia polymorpha) was introduced into England at the beginning of this century. Though it has been proved that this species is quite unable to live in pure sea-water, yet the view that it has been carried from the Black Sea ports to this country attached to the bottom of ships is maintained by many, whilst others incline to the theory that the shell came with timber. But Dreyssensia polymorpha was by no means always confined to the Caspian and Black Sea areas; it occurs abundantly in the lower continental boulder-clay (see p. [230]), and no doubt it had at one time a much wider geographical distribution. It appears to me possible, that it was able to maintain itself in certain fresh-water lakes and slow-flowing rivers in Northern Europe, from which it might have spread since the introduction of canals into Europe at the beginning of the century. As the larva of this fresh-water mussel is free-swimming, its propagation is much favoured by canals. Quickly-flowing rivers are fatal to its existence, since the delicate larvæ are swept out to sea and perish. Such an hypothesis as this is strengthened by the fact of its recent discovery in a sandy layer fifteen feet below the present surface under the streets of London in a deposit which probably, as Mr. Woodward remarks (p. 8), was accumulated in the early days of the city's existence. In spite of Mr. Woodward's interesting find, and Dr. Jeffreys' opinion, who always maintained that this shell was indigenous to England, popular belief still clings tenaciously to the introduction theory.

Among man's intentional introductions into a new country, no instance is better known than that of the rabbit to Australia. Rabbits are entirely confined to Europe. In their transplantation to Australia they were carried to a country with a different climate and among new surroundings. Yet the rabbits flourished, and within comparatively few years increased to such an extent as to become a burden and pest to the country. It may be remembered though, that, owing to the complete absence of small carnivores, which act with us as a check upon the too rapid increase of this rodent, the speed with which it established itself in the new surroundings is not so very surprising.

Many of the English settlers in the New World felt that America lacked the presence of our familiar birds. The homely sparrow was therefore brought over, with the result that the Agricultural Department of the United States is now devising means for its destruction, so rapid has been its increase.

Similarly, the inhabitants of Jamaica, annoyed by the great profusion of rats in their island, sent over to India for a number of mongoose. These have decimated the rats since their arrival, but they have multiplied to such an extent as to be a serious menace to the native fauna.

To give an instance nearer home, the Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) was successfully introduced into Scotland in 1837. From its different centres of distribution it is spreading in all directions where sufficient cover is obtainable. But this case differs from the others very materially, in so far as this bird was formerly a native of Scotland, and only became extinct during the last century.

However, although there are many examples of undoubtedly successful introductions by human agency, quite as many, or perhaps more, unsuccessful ones might be quoted. In fact, it is by no means easy to establish a species in any new locality. Frequently it happens that the species seems to be on the increase at first, but then there is a decline, and after a few years the new plantation has entirely vanished. In other cases, the species disappears immediately after the introduction takes place, or lingers on for many years if it receives special and uninterrupted protection.

It may not be generally known that the English Hare (Lepus Europæus) is not found in Ireland, where the Mountain Hare (Lepus variabilis) alone occurs. Attempts to acclimatise the English species have been made in a number of places in Ireland, but many of them have been failures, and not one of them has been a signal success.[4] Similarly, the endeavour to introduce the French or Red-legged Partridge (Caccabis rufa) into Ireland has met with a like result. According to Dr. Day, it was tried during the summer of 1869 to naturalise the Sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus) from Russian waters into the Duke of Sutherland's River Fleet by importing artificially impregnated ova. From one hundred and fifty to two hundred lively young sterlets are said to have been turned out, but nevertheless the experiment met with no success. Several fortunately abortive efforts were also made in British rivers to establish Silurus glanis, a hideous monster of a fish, and quite unpalatable.