A Handbook of the English Language

by R. G. Latham

D. APPLETON & COMPANY,

443 & 445 BROADWAY.

M.DCCC.LXIV.

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CONTENTS.

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PART I.
GENERAL ETHNOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
CHAPTER I.
GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.—DATE.
SECTION	PAGE
[1]. English language not British	1
[2]. Real origin German	1
[3]. Accredited immigrations and settlements	2
[4], [5]. Criticism	4, 5
CHAPTER II.
GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.—THE GERMANIC AREA OF THE PARTICULAR GERMANS WHO INTRODUCED IT.—EXTRACT FROM BEDA.
[6], [7]. Jutes, Angles, and Saxons	6
[8], [9]. Extract from Beda	6, 7
[10]—[13]. Criticism	8—11
[14], [15]. Angles	11, 12
[16]. Saxons of Beda	12, 13
[17]. Anglo-Saxon area	13
[18], [19]. The Frisians	13, 14
[20]. Anglo-Saxon area	14
CHAPTER III.
OF THE DIALECTS OF THE SAXON AREA, AND OF THE SO-CALLED OLD SAXON.
[21]—[29]. Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon	16, 17
CHAPTER IV.
AFFINITIES OF THE ENGLISH WITH THE LANGUAGES OF GERMANY AND SCANDINAVIA.
[30], [31]. Gothic languages	18
[32]—[34]. Divisions of the Gothic stock	18
[35]. Mœso-Gothic	19
[36]. Old High German	19
[37]. Low German	19
[38]. Frisian and Dutch	19
[39]. Platt-Deutsch	20
[40], [41]. Comparison	21—23
CHAPTER V.
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.—GERMANIC ELEMENTS.—THE ANGLES.
[42]. Analysis	24
[43]—[54]. Angles—their relations	24—28
[55], [56]. The Frisians	29, 30
CHAPTER VI.
THE CELTIC STOCK OF LANGUAGES AND THEIR RELATIONS TO THE ENGLISH.
[57]. Branches of the Celtic stock	31
[58]—[60]. Structure of Celtic tongues	31—33
[61]—[63]. The Picts	33—35
CHAPTER VII.
THE ANGLO-NORMAN, AND THE LANGUAGE OF THE CLASSICAL STOCK.
[64]. The classical languages	36
[65]—[67]. Latin branch	36—40
[68], [69]. Norman French	40, 41
PART II.
HISTORY AND ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
CHAPTER I.
HISTORICAL AND LOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
[70]. Celtic elements	45
[71]. Latin of first period	46
[72]. Anglo-Saxon	47
[73]. Danish or Norse	47
[74]. Roman of second period	49
[75]. Anglo-Norman element	49
[76]. Indirect Scandinavian elements	50
[77]. Latin of third period	51
[78]. Latin of fourth period	51
[79]. Greek	52
[80]—[82]. Tables	53—55
[83]—[90]. Miscellaneous elements	55—60
[91]—[94]. Hybridism and new words	60—62
[95]. Historical and logical analysis	63
CHAPTER II.
THE RELATION OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ANGLO-SAXON, AND THE STAGES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
[96]. Ancient and modern tongues	64
[97]. Details	65—68
[98]. Stages of the English language	68
[99]. Semi-Saxon	69
[100]—[103]. Old English, &c.	70—72
[104]. Present tendencies	73
PART III.
SOUNDS, LETTERS, PRONUNCIATION, SPELLING.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL NATURE AND CERTAIN PROPERTIES OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.
[105]. Spelling and speaking	77
[106]. Sounds and syllables	79
[107]. Vowels	79
[108]. Divisions	80
[109]. Sharp and flat sounds	80
[110]. Continuous and explosive	80
[111]. General statements	81
[112]. The sound of h	81
CHAPTER II.
SYSTEM OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.
[113]. Certain foreign sounds	82
[114]. System of mutes	82
[115]. Lenes and aspirates	83
[116]. Fourfold character of mutes	84
[117]. Y and w	84
[118], [119]. Diphthongs	84
[120]. Compound sounds	85
[121]. Ng	85
[122], [123]. Broad, slender; long, short; dependent, independent	85, 86
[124]—[126]. System of sounds	86, 87
CHAPTER III.
OF CERTAIN COMBINATIONS OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.
[127]. Sharp and flat mutes	88
[128]. Unstable combinations	89
[129]. Effect of y	89
[130], [131]. Double consonants rare	89
[132]. True aspirates rare	90
CHAPTER IV.
EUPHONY AND THE PERMUTATION OF LETTERS.
[133]. Euphony	92
[134]. Permutation	93
CHAPTER V.
ON THE FORMATION OF SYLLABLES.
[135]. Syllabification	95—97
CHAPTER VI.
ON QUANTITY.
[136]. Long and short sounds	98
[137]. Quantity of vowels—of syllables	98
[138]. Classical and English measurements	99
CHAPTER VII.
ON ACCENT.
[139]. Place of accents	101
[140]. Distinctive accents	101
[141]. Emphasis	102
CHAPTER VIII.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
[142]. Orthoepy	103
[143]—[146]. Principle of an alphabet	103—105
[147]. Violations of it	105
[148]. Rules	107
[149]—[151]. Details of English	107—109
[152]. Insufficiency	109
[153]. Inconsistency	109
[154]. Erroneousness	110
[155]. Redundancy	110
[156]. Unsteadiness	110
[157]. Other defects	111
[158]. Historical propriety	113
[159]. Conventional spelling	113
CHAPTER IX.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.
[160]—[166]. Phœnician, Greek, Roman stages	116—124
[166]—[172]. Anglo-Saxon alphabet	124—126
[173]. Anglo-Norman alphabet	126
[174]. Extract from Ormulum	127
[175]. Order of alphabet	128
PART IV.
ETYMOLOGY.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE PROVINCE OF ETYMOLOGY.
[176]—[179]. Meaning of term	131—133
CHAPTER II.
ON GENDER.
[180]. Boy and girl	134
[181]. Man-servant and maid-servant	134
[182], [183]. Forms like genitrix	135
[184]. Forms like domina	136
[185]—[189]. Genders in English	136, 137
[190]—[192]. The sun in his glory; the moon in her wane	138
[193]. Miscellaneous forms	139—142
CHAPTER III.
THE NUMBERS.
[194]—[197]. Numbers in English	143, 144
[198]. Rule	145
[199]. Remarks	145
[200]. Addition of -es	146
Pence, alms, &c.	147
Mathematics	147
[201]. Children	149
[202]. Form in -en	150
[203]. Men, feet, &c.	150
[204]. Brethren, &c.	150
[205]. Houses	152
[206]. Wives, &c.	152
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE CASES.
[207]—[211]. Nature of cases	154—156
[212]. Accusatives	156
[213]. Datives	157
[214]. Genitives	157
[215]. Instrumental	158
All the better	158, 159
[216]. Determination of cases	159
[217]. Analysis of cases	160
[218]. Form in -s	160
CHAPTER V.
THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
[219], [220]. I, we, us, &c.	162
[221]. You	162
[222]. Me	163
[223]—[225]. Cautions	163, 164
CHAPTER VI.
ON THE TRUE REFLECTIVE PRONOUN IN THE GOTHIC LANGUAGES, AND ON ITS ABSENCE IN ENGLISH.
[226]. How far found in English	165
CHAPTER VII.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, ETC.
[227]. He, she, it	166
[228]. She	166
[229]. Her, him, his, its, &c.	167
[230]. Theirs	167
[231]. Table	168
[232]. These	169
[233]. Those	171
CHAPTER VIII.
THE RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND CERTAIN OTHER PRONOUNS.
[234]. Who, what, &c.	173
[235]. Same, &c.	173
[236]. Other, whether	177
CHAPTER IX.
ON CERTAIN FORMS IN -ER.
[237]—[239]. Idea expressed by -er	179—181
CHAPTER X.
THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE.
[240]. Form in -s	182
[241]. Elder, &c.	183
[242]. Rather	183
[243], [244]. Excess of expression	183
[245]—[247]. Better	183—185
[248]. Worse	185
[249]. More	185
[250]. Less	185
[251]—[253]. Near, &c.	186
[254]. Origin of superlative	186
CHAPTER XI.
THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE.
[255], [256]. Former	188
[257]. Nearest	188
[258]. Next	188
[259], [260]. Upmost, &c.	189, 190
CHAPTER XII.
THE CARDINAL NUMBERS.
[261]. How far undeclined	191
CHAPTER XIII.
THE ORDINAL NUMBERS.
[262]—[264]. Seven, nine, ten	192
[265], [266]. Thirteen, thirty	193
CHAPTER XIV.
THE ARTICLES.
[267]. A, an, the	194
CHAPTER XV.
DIMINUTIVES, AUGMENTATIVES, AND PATRONYMICS.
[268]—[270]. Diminutives	197—199
[271]. Augmentatives	200
[272]. Patronymics	200, 201
CHAPTER XVI.
GENTILE FORMS.
[273]. Wales	202
CHAPTER XVII.
ON THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE NOUN AND VERB, AND ON THE INFLECTION OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD.
[274]—[281]. The verb, how far a noun	203—206
CHAPTER XVIII.
ON DERIVED VERBS.
[282]. Divisions of verbs	207
[282]. Derivation	208, 209
CHAPTER XIX.
ON THE PERSONS.
[283]. Persons in English	210
[284], [285]. Historical view	211
[286]. Form in -t	212
[287]. Thou spakest, &c.	212
[288]. We loves	213
CHAPTER XX.
ON THE NUMBERS OF VERBS.
[289]. Numbers in English	214
[290]. Ran, run, &c.	215
CHAPTER XXI.
ON MOODS.
[291]—[292]. Moods in English	216
CHAPTER XXII.
ON TENSES IN GENERAL.
[293]. Strike, struck	217
[294]—[296]. Ἔτυπτον, &c.	217, 218
[297]. Reduplication	219
[298]. Weak or strong	220
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE STRONG TENSES.
[299]. Sing, sang, sung	221
[300]—[303]. Tables	222—225
CHAPTER XXIV.
THE WEAK TENSES.
[304]. Stabbed, &c.	226
[305]—[307]. Divisions	227, 228
[309]. Bought, sought	228
[309]. Forms in -te and -ode	229
[310]—[312]. Bred, beat, &c.	230
[313]. Leave, left	231
[314]. Made, had	231
[314]. Would, should, could	231
[315]. Aught	231
[316]. Durst, must, &c.	232
[317]. This will do	233
[318]. Mind	234
[319]. Yode	234
[320]. Did	234
CHAPTER XXV.
ON CONJUGATION.
[321], [322]. Weak and strong conjugations natural	235—237
CHAPTER XXVI.
DEFECTIVENESS AND IRREGULARITY.
[323]—[325]. Irregularity	238
[326]. Vital and obsolete processes	240
[327]. Processes of necessity, &c.	241
[328]. Ordinary processes	241
[329]. Positive	242
[330]. Normal	242
[331]. Could	243
[332]. Quoth	244
[333]. Real irregular verbs few	244
CHAPTER XXVII.
THE IMPERSONAL VERBS.
[334], [335]. Me-seems, me-listeth	246
CHAPTER XXVIII.
THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE.
[336]. Not irregular	247
[337]. Was	247
[338]—[341]. Be	248, 249
[342]. An	249
[343]. Worth	250
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
[344]. Forms in -ing	251
[345]. Forms in -ung	252
CHAPTER XXX.
THE PAST PARTICIPLE.
[346]. Forms in -en	254
[347], [348]. Drunken	254
[349]. Forlorn	255
[350]. Forms in -ed	255
[351]. The prefix Y	256
CHAPTER XXXI.
COMPOSITION.
[352]—[357]. Nature of compounds	258—261
[358]—[361]. Accent	261—266
[362]. Obscure compounds	266
[363]—[365]. Exceptions	266, 267, 268
[366]. Peacock, peahen	269
[367]. Nightingale	269
[368]. Improper compounds	270
[369]. Decomposites	270
[370]. Combinations	270, 271
CHAPTER XXXII.
ON DERIVATION AND INFLECTION.
[371]—[373]. Their nature	272—275
CHAPTER XXXIII.
ADVERBS.
[374], [375]. Their division	276
[376]—[379]. Adverbs of deflection	277
[380]. Darkling	278
CHAPTER XXXIV.
ON CERTAIN ADVERBS OF PLACE.
[381]—[384]. Hither, thither, &c	279
[385]. Hence, &c.	280
[386]. Yonder	280
[387]. Anon	281
CHAPTER XXXV.
ON WHEN, THEN, AND THAN.
[388], [389]. Their origin	282
CHAPTER XXXVI.
PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS.
[390]. Prepositions	283
[391]. Conjunctions	283
[392]. Yes, No	283
[393]. Particles	283
CHAPTER XXXVII.
ON THE GRAMMATICAL POSITION OF THE WORDS mine AND thine.
[394]—[407]. Equivalent to meus and tuus, rather than possessive cases	284—290
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE WEAK PRÆTERITE.
[408]. Grimm's view	291
[409], [410]. Remarks of Dr. Trithen	291—293
PART V.
SYNTAX.
CHAPTER I.
ON SYNTAX IN GENERAL.
[411], [412]. Syntax	294
[413]. Personification	294
[414]. Ellipsis	295
[415]. Pleonasm	295
[416]. Zeugma	295
[417]. Pros to semainomenon	296
[418]. Apposition	296
[419]. Collectiveness	297
[420]. Reduction	297
[421]. Determination of part of speech	298
[422]—[424]. Convertibility	298, 299
[425]. The Blacks of Africa	299
[426]. None of your ifs	300
[427]. Convertible words numerous in English	300
CHAPTER II.
SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES.
[428]. Rundell and Bridge's	301
[429]. Right and left	301
CHAPTER III.
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.
[430]. Pleonasm	302
[431]. Collocation	302
[432]. Government	302
[433]. More wise, wiser	303
[434]. The better of the two	304
[435]. Syntax of adjectives simple	304
CHAPTER IV.
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
[436]. Pleonasm	305
[437]. Father's, not father his	305
[438]. Pleonasm and ellipses allied	306
CHAPTER V.
THE TRUE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
[439]. Pronomen reverentiæ	307
[440]. Dativus ethicus	307
[441]. Reflected pronoun	307
[442]. Reflected neuters	308
[443]. Equivocal reflective	308
CHAPTER VI.
ON THE SYNTAX OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, AND THE PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON.
[444], [445]. His and its	310, 311
CHAPTER VII.
ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE WORD self.
[446], [447]. Myself, himself, &c.	312, 313
CHAPTER VIII.
ON THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
[448]—[451]. My and mine	314—316
CHAPTER IX.
THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
[452]—[456]. Their concord	317, 318
[457]. Ellipsis	318
[458]. Equivocal antecedent	319
CHAPTER X.
ON THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.
[459], [460]. Direct and oblique questions	320
CHAPTER XI.
THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.
[461], [462]. Their construction	322, 323
CHAPTER XII.
THE INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS.
[463]—[466]. Use of it	324, 325
[467], [468]. Use of them	325
CHAPTER XX.
ON THE TENSES.
[486]. Present	342
[486], [487]. Preterite	342
CHAPTER XXI.
SYNTAX OF THE PERSONS OF VERBS.
[488], [489]. Their concord	344
CHAPTER XXII.
ON THE VOICES OF VERBS.
[490]. Hight	345
CHAPTER XXIII.
ON THE AUXILIARY VERBS.
[491]. Their classification	346—348
[492]. I have ridden	348
[493]. I am to speak	351
[494]. I am to blame	351
[495]. I am beaten	351
CHAPTER XXIV.
OF ADVERBS.
[496], [497]. Their syntax simple	353
[498]. Termination -ly	354
[499]. To walk and ride	354
[500]. From whence, &c.	354, 355
CHAPTER XXV.
ON PREPOSITIONS.
[501]. Climb up a tree	356
[502]. Part of the body	356
CHAPTER XXVI.
ON CONJUNCTIONS.
[503], [504]. Their nature	357—359
[505]. Their government	359
[506]—[511]. The subjunctive mood	359—364
[512]. Use of that	364
[513]. Succession of tenses	364
[514]. Disjunctives	365
CHAPTER XXVII.
THE SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIVE.
[515]. Its place	366
[516]. Its distribution	366
[517]. Two negatives	367
[518]. Questions of appeal	367
CHAPTER XXVIII.
ON THE CASE ABSOLUTE.
[519]. Its participial character	369
PART VI.
PROSODY.
[520]. Derivation of the word	371
[521], [522]. Importance of accent	371
[523]—[526]. Measures	372, 373
[527]. Metrical notation	374
[528]—[535]. Rhyme	374—377
[536]. Blank verse	377
[537], [538]. Last syllable indifferent	378
[539], [540]. Names of common English metres	379—384
PART VII.
DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
[541]. Saxons and Angles	385
[542]—[544]. Dialects not coincident	385, 386
[545], [546]. Traces of the Danes	386, 387
[547] Mercian origin of the written English	387
Notes	393

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AN INTRODUCTION