[§ 472]. Mixed syntax requires two sorts of knowledge—metaphysical, and historical.
1. To account for such a fact in language as the expression the man as rides to market, instead of the usual expression the man who rides to market, is a question of what is commonly called metaphysics. The idea of comparison is the idea common to the words as and who.
2. To account for such a fact in language as the expression I have ridden a horse is a question of history. We must know that when there was a sign of an accusative case in English the word horse had that sign; in other words that the expression was, originally, I have a horse as a ridden thing. These two views illustrate each other.
[§ 473]. In the English, as in all other languages, it is convenient to notice certain so-called figures of speech. They always furnish convenient modes of expression, and sometimes, as in the case of the one immediately about to be noticed, account for facts.
[§ 474]. Personification.—The ideas of apposition and collectiveness account for the apparent violations of the concord of number. The idea of personification applies to the concord of gender. A masculine or feminine gender, characteristic of persons, may be substituted for the neuter gender, characteristic of things. In this case the term is said to be personified.
The cities who aspired to liberty.—A personification of the idea expressed by cities is here necessary to justify the expression.
It, the sign of the neuter gender, as applied to a male or female child, is the reverse of the process.
[§ 475]. Ellipsis (from the Greek elleipein=to fall short), or a falling short, occurs in sentences like I sent to the bookseller's. Here the word shop or house is understood. Expressions like to go on all fours, and to eat of the fruit of the tree, are reducible to ellipses.
[§ 476]. Pleonasm (from the Greek pleonazein=to be in excess) occurs in sentences like the king, he reigns. Here the word he is superabundant. In many pleonastic