Our national forests

by Richard H. D. Boerker

[TABLE OF CONTENTS]

	PAGE
Preface	[vii]
Introduction	[xiii]
Forestry as a National Problem	[xiii]
Our consumption of wood	[xiii]
The lumber industry	[xiv]
Our future lumber supply	[xv]
Forests and stream flow	[xvi]
Forests and erosion	[xvii]
Forestry a public enterprise	[xviii]
The Extent and Character of Our National Forests	[xix]
How the Government obtained the National Forest lands	[xix]
The romance of the National Forest region	[xx]
Famous scenic wonders near the Forests	[xxii]
The size and extent of the National Forests	[xxiv]
The topography and climate of the National Forest region	[xxvi]
Why the National Forests were Created	[xxvii]
How the National Forest Policy has Benefited the People	[xxx]
The remaining timber resources were saved	[xxx]
The use of forage and water resources was regulated	[xxxii]
The Forests were protected from fire and trespass	[xxxv]
The watershed cover was preserved	[xxxvii]
Civilization brought to the mountains	[xxxviii]
Agricultural lands opened to settlement	[xxxix]
Permanent and not temporary civilization resulted	[xl]
Financial returns	[xliii]
The new eastern National Forests	[xlvii]
I The Creation and Organization of the National Forests	[1]
Economic Conditions Which Led to Forest Conservation	[1]
Prodigality leads finally to conservation	[1]
The march of forest destruction	[2]
Our lumber and water supply imperiled	[5]
The First Steps in Federal Forest Conservation	[6]
The upbuilding of the West	[6]
The Lake States first to act	[7]
The first federal steps	[8]
The Act of August 16, 1876	[9]
Further work under the Act	[11]
The First Forest Reserves Established March 30, 1891	[12]
The situation before 1891	[12]
The need of the forest policy	[13]
The Act of March 3, 1891	[14]
An Anomalous Condition—Forest Reserves Without Forest Administration	[14]
The Need of Administration on the Reserves	[14]
More Reserves created	[16]
The Administration of the Reserves Under the General Land Office	[16]
The Act of June 4, 1897	[16]
The Division of Forestry in 1898	[18]
The Bureau of Forestry	[19]
The Consolidation of the Forestry Work in the Department of Agriculture in 1905	[19]
The Act of February 1, 1905	[19]
Early forestry education and literature	[20]
Changes in the Forest Service personnel	[21]
More National Forests created	[21]
The growth of the Forest Service	[22]
Recent modifications in the organization	[23]
The Present Organization of the Forest Service	[24]
The administrative districts	[24]
The Washington office	[26]
The district offices	[28]
IIThe Administration of the National Forests	[30]
Personnel	[31]
Duties of forest officers	[31]
The Forest Supervisor	[32]
The Forest Assistant	[34]
The Forest Ranger	[35]
The Forest Clerk	[38]
Forest Service Meetings	[39]
How the Forest Service Appropriation is Allotted to the National Forests	[40]
Forest Service expenses	[40]
The agricultural appropriation bill	[42]
The ranger's protection and improvement plans	[42]
The Supervisor's plans	[43]
Approval of plans by the District Forester	[44]
The district fiscal agent	[45]
Tax money paid to the states	[46]
The Equipment and Supplies for the National Forests	[47]
The property auditor and property clerk	[47]
Blank forms	[48]
Supplies	[48]
National Forest Improvements	[49]
The need of improvements	[49]
Transportation facilities	[50]
Communication facilities	[53]
Grazing improvements	[56]
Protection improvements	[57]
Appropriations for improvement work	[58]
The Classification and Consolidation of National Forest Lands	[61]
Land classification	[61]
The consolidation of National Forest lands	[63]
How Young Forests are Planted to Replace Those Destroyed by Fire	[64]
Reforestation and the timber supply	[64]
Reforestation and water supply	[65]
Government reforestation policy	[67]
Methods of reforestation	[70]
Direct seeding work on the National Forests	[72]
Planting on the National Forests	[78]
The Organization and Scope of Forest Experiments and Investigations	[83]
The need of scientific experiments	[83]
The science of growing timber	[84]
Dendrological studies	[86]
Seed studies	[87]
Nursery studies	[88]
Forestation experiments	[89]
Studies of forest influences	[89]
Meteorological observations	[91]
Forest management studies	[92]
Forest protection studies	[94]
Protection from grazing damage	[95]
Protection from insects and diseases	[96]
Tree studies	[97]
Grazing investigations	[98]
Investigations dealing with poisonous plants and predatory animals	[102]
National Forest utilization experiments	[104]
Forest Products Laboratory experiments	[108]
Industrial investigations	[116]
IIIThe Protection of the National Forests	[120]
Protection from Fire	[120]
Forest Fire danger on the National Forests	[120]
Importance of fire protection	[121]
Causes of forest fires on the National Forests	[124]
Behavior of forest fires	[126]
Losses by forest fires on the National Forests	[126]
The forest fire problem stated	[128]
Fire prevention	[129]
Fire suppression	[133]
How forest fire funds are distributed	[134]
Forest fire history	[136]
Relation of forest fires to the weather	[137]
Improvements and equipment for protection	[138]
Forest fire maps and charts	[139]
Forest fire organization	[140]
How fires are located	[142]
The fire fighting organization	[144]
Forest fire coöperation	[146]
Fighting forest fires	[147]
Protection Against Trespass, Forest Insects, Erosion, and Other Agencies	[150]
Trespass	[150]
Forest insects	[154]
Tree diseases	[159]
Water supply	[162]
Public health	[167]
Violation of game laws	[168]
IVThe Sale and Rental of National Forest Resources	[170]
The Sale and Disposal of National Forest Timber	[170]
Government Timber Sale Policy	[171]
Annual yield and cut	[172]
Timber reconnoissance	[174]
Logging the timber	[176]
The first step in purchasing government timber	[180]
Procedure in an advertised sale	[180]
Timber sale contract clauses	[182]
Special contract clauses	[184]
When the operation may begin	[186]
Marking the timber for cutting	[186]
Scaling, measuring, and stamping	[188]
Disposal of slash	[190]
Payment for timber	[192]
Stumpage rates	[193]
Cutting period	[194]
Readjustment of Stumpage rates	[194]
Refunds	[194]
The Disposal of timber to Homestead Settlers and Under Free Use	[195]
Sales to homestead settlers and farmers	[195]
Free Use	[195]
Timber Settlement and Administrative Use	[198]
The Rental of National Forest Range Lands	[200]
Importance of the live-stock industry	[200]
Permits issued in 1917	[201]
Kinds of range, grazing seasons, and methods handling stock	[202]
Grazing districts and grazing units	[205]
Who are entitled to grazing privileges	[207]
Grazing permits	[211]
Grazing fees	[214]
Stock associations	[215]
Protective and maximum limits	[216]
Prohibition of grazing	[218]
Protection of grazing interests	[219]
Special Uses	[220]
Claims and Settlement	[223]
The National Forest Homestead Act	[224]
The mining laws	[229]
Coal-land laws	[230]
Administrative Use of National Forest Lands	[230]
Water Power, Telephone, Telegraph, and Power Transmission Lines	[230]
Appendix	[233]

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[ILLUSTRATIONS]

Figure	1.	An observation point for finding forest fires. Vigilance is the watchword on the National Forests. During 1916 forest officers extinguished 5,655 forest fires. Photo by the author	[Frontispiece]
			FACING PAGE
Figure	2.	A typical National Forest landscape in the high mountains. Potosi Peak, 13,763 feet, from Yankee Boy Basin, Uncompahgre National Forest, Ouray County, Colorado	[xviii]
Figure	3.	The climate of most of the National Forests is severe. This view was taken in the early summer and shows the high mountains still covered with snow. Most of the National Forest lands are therefore of small value for agriculture. Photo by Abbey	[xxviii]
Figure	4.	On many high mountains on the National Forests snow banks persist throughout the summer. This view was taken in the latter part of August. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author	[xxviii]
Figure	5.	The Big Trees. "Mother of the Forest" in the background. North Calaveras Grove, California	[xxxii]
Figure	6.	A scene on one of the famous National Parks. Upper Lake, Glacier National Park, Northern Rockies, Montana	[xxxvi]
Figure	7.	The remains of the old boiler house. The town once had a sawmill, planing mill, lath mill, besides modern conveniences. All these are now gone after the forests have been cut. Lemiston, Montmorency County, Michigan	[xlii]
Figure	8.	Deserted houses, abandoned after the sawmill left. These are the remains of what was once a prosperous town. Lemiston, Montmorency County, Michigan	[xlii]
Figure	9.	Forest officers in front of the Forest Supervisor's summer headquarters. Note the many telephone wires that lead from the office. This is 50 miles from the railroad. Lassen National Forest, California	[32]
Figure	10.	Scene in front of the Forest Supervisor's headquarters. Sheep leaving the National Forest summer range in the fall to go to winter range in the valley. Lassen National Forest, California	[32]
Figure	11.	Forest officers and lumberjacks burning the slash resulting from a timber sale. The snow on the ground makes the burning less dangerous. Washakie National Forest, Wyoming. Photo by the author	[38]
Figure	12.	Forest officers at a winter timber-cruising camp repairing snow shoes. Besides cruising the timber, these men make a logging map of the government lands, to show how the timber can best be taken out. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author	[38]
Figure	13.	A forest fire lookout tower on Leek Springs Mountain, Eldorado National Forest, California	[50]
Figure	14.	A typical Forest Ranger's headquarters. Idlewood Ranger Station, Arapaho National Forest, Colorado	[52]
Figure	15.	A typical view of the National Forest country in Montana. Forest Service trail up Squaw Peak Patrol Station, Cabinet National Forest	[54]
Figure	16.	Forest Rangers repairing a bridge over a mountain stream. Arapaho National Forest, Colorado	[56]
Figure	17.	A forest fire lookout station on the top of Lassen Peak, elevation 10,400 feet, Lassen National Forest, California. The cabin was first erected complete in a carpenter's shop in Red Bluff, about 50 miles away. It was then taken to pieces and packed to the foot of Lassen Peak. On the last two miles of its journey it was packed piece by piece on forest officers' backs and finally reassembled on the topmost pinnacle of the mountain. Photo by the author	[58]
Figure	18.	Forest officers and laborers building a wagon road through trap rock. Payette National Forest, Idaho	[58]
Figure	19.	Drying pine cones preparatory to extracting the seed. Near Plumas National Forest, California	[66]
Figure	20.	Extracting tree seed from the cones. The dried cones are shaken around until the seeds drop out through the wire mesh which forms the sides of the machine	[66]
Figure	21.	Preparing the ground with a spring-tooth harrow for the broadcast sowing of tree seeds. Battlement National Forest, Colorado. This view was taken at approximately 10,000 feet elevation. Photo by the author	[70]
Figure	22.	A local settler delivering a load of Lodgepole pine cones at the seed extractory, for which he receives 45 cents per bushel. Forest officers receiving them, Arapaho National Forest, Colorado	[70]
Figure	23.	In a forest nursery a trough is often used for sowing seeds in drills. The seed scattered along the sides of the trough rattles into position at the bottom and is more even than when distributed by the ordinary worker at the bottom of the trough. Pike National Forest, Colorado	[72]
Figure	24.	Uncle Sam grows the little trees by the millions. These will soon cover some of the bare hillsides on the National Forests of the West	[72]
Figure	25.	One of the largest Forest Service nurseries where the young trees are given the utmost care before they are large and strong enough to endure the rigorous climate of the National Forests. McCloud Nursery, Shasta National Forest, California	[76]
Figure	26.	A view of seed sowing with a corn planter. San Isabel National Forest, Colorado	[78]
Figure	27.	Sowing seed along contour lines on the slopes. Pike National Forest, Colorado	[78]
Figure	28.	A planting crew at work setting out small trees. The man ahead digs the hole, and the man behind plants the tree. Wasatch National Forest, Utah	[82]
Figure	29.	At the Fort Valley Forest Experiment Station, Coconino National Forest, Arizona. A typical meteorological station. Forest officer measuring precipitation. Note the shelter which contains thermometers and also the electrically equipped instruments to record the direction and velocity of the wind	[90]
Figure	30.	Forest officer ascertaining the amount of evaporation from a free water surface. Fort Valley Forest Experiment Station, Flagstaff, Arizona	[90]
Figure	31.	Forest Ranger with his pack horses traveling over his district. Meadow Creek, foot of Mt. Wilson, Montezuma National Forest, Colorado	[102]
Figure	32.	A plank of Incense cedar affected by a disease known as "pin rot." By cutting the cedar timber when it is mature this can be largely avoided. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author	[114]
Figure	33.	The western pine forests will some day be a great source for naval stores. By distilling the crude resin of the Jeffrey pine a light volatile oil—abietene—is secured which has great healing and curative properties. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author	[114]
Figure	34.	A forest fire lookout station at the summit of Mt. Eddy. Mt. Shasta in the background. California	[124]
Figure	35.	A forest fire lookout station on the summit of Brokeoff Mountain, elevation 9,500 feet. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author	[128]
Figure	36.	Turner Mountain lookout station, Lassen National Forest, California. This is a 10 ft. by 10 ft. cabin with a stove and with folding bed, table, and chairs. The forest officer stationed here watches for forest fires day and night throughout the fire season. Photo by the author	[128]
Figure	37.	A fire line cut through the low bush-like growth of "Chaparral" on the Angeles National Forest, California. This "Chaparral" is of great value for regulating stream flow. The streams are used for water power, domestic purposes, and for irrigating many of the largest lemon and orange groves of southern California	[132]
Figure	38.	A forest officers' temporary camp while fighting forest fires. Near Oregon National Forest, Oregon	[132]
Figure	39.	Putting out a ground fire. Even if the fire does not burn the standing timber, it kills the young trees and so weakens the larger ones that they are easily blown over. Wallowa National Forest, Oregon	[136]
Figure	40.	Forest officers ready to leave a tool box for a forest fire in the vicinity. Such tool boxes as these are stationed at convenient places on National Forests ready for any emergency. Arapaho National Forest, Colorado	[136]
Figure	41.	A forest fire on the Wasatch National Forest, Utah. Forest officers trying to stop a forest fire by cutting a fire line. Note the valuable growth of young trees which they are trying to save at the right	[140]
Figure	42.	A forest fire running in dense underbrush on one of the National Forests in Oregon	[144]
Figure	43.	Men in a dense forest with heavy undergrowth clearing away brush to stop the fire as it is running down hill. Crater National Forest, Oregon	[144]
Figure	44.	Fire in a Lodgepole pine forest in Colorado. Arapaho National Forest, Colorado	[148]
Figure	45.	A mountain fire in "Chaparral" five hours after it started. Pasadena, California	[148]
Figure	46.	A few years ago this was a green, luxuriant forest. Picture taken after the great fires of August 20, 1910, on the Cœur d'Alene National Forest near Wallace, Idaho	[152]
Figure	47.	The first evidence of insect attack are the reddish brown pitch tubes on the bark. Lodgepole pine infested by the mountain pine beetle. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author	[156]
Figure	48.	The last stage of an insect-attacked tree. The tree is dead and the dry bark is falling off. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author	[156]
Figure	49.	Wrecked farm buildings due to flood of May 21, 1901, Nolichucky River, near Erwin, Tenn. This is one result of denuding the Appalachian Mountains of their forest cover	[162]
Figure	50.	When steep hillsides are stripped of their forest growth, erosion results. Erosion has been especially serious in the Appalachian Mountains. View taken in Madison County, North Carolina	[162]
Figure	51.	A fertile corn-field covered with sand, gravel and débris brought down from the mountains by floods. These farm lands are ruined beyond redemption. This could have been prevented by preserving the forests on the watershed of this river	[166]
Figure	52.	A view towards Mt. Adams and the headwaters of Lewis River. Council Lake in the foreground. National forest lands lie at the headwaters of practically every large western river. This means that the water supply for the western people used for domestic use, water power, and irrigation is being protected from pollution and destruction. View taken on the Rainier National Forest, Washington	[172]
Figure	53.	A large storage reservoir used to irrigate the ranches in the valley below. Elevation 10,500 feet. Battlement National Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author	[176]
Figure	54.	A sheep herder's camp used temporarily by Forest Service timber cruisers. Elevation about 10,000 feet. Battlement National Forest, Colorado. Photo by author.	[176]
Figure	55.	View taken in the Coast Range mountains of California where Sugar pine and Douglas fir and the principal trees. Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the author	[180]
Figure	56.	A typical mountain scene in the California Coast Range. On these steep slopes a forest cover is of vital importance. Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the author	[180]
Figure	57.	A forest officer at work on a high mountain peak making a plane-table survey and timber estimate of National Forest lands. Photo by the author	[182]
Figure	58.	A government timber cruiser's summer camp. These cruisers get a fairly accurate estimate of Uncle Sam's timber resources at a cost of from 2 to 5 cents an acre. Photo by the author	[182]
Figure	59.	Forest officers moving camp while engaged in winter reconnoissance work. All food, beds, and clothing are packed on "Alaska" sleds and drawn by the men themselves. Photo by the author	[184]
Figure	60.	A winter reconnoissance camp showing snow-shoes, skis, "Alaska" sleds, and bull hide used to repair the webbing on the snow-shoes. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author	[184]
Figure	61.	A group of giant redwoods. Santa Cruz County, California	[186]
Figure	62.	A big Sugar pine tree about six feet in diameter. This is the most valuable timber species in California. Photo by the author	[188]
Figure	63.	A Western Yellow pine forest in California. These trees are from four to six feet in diameter and from 150 to 200 feet high. Note the Forest Service timber cruiser measuring the tree at the left. Photo by the author.	[188]
Figure	64.	Logging in California. Powerful steam engines pull the logs from the woods to the railroad and load them on flat cars. Photo by the author	[190]
Figure	65.	The loaded flat cars reach the sawmill where the logs are unloaded and sawn into lumber. During the fiscal year 1917 timber sales on the National Forests brought into the National Treasury almost $1,700,000.00. Photo by the author	[190]
Figure	66.	Scene in Montana. Forest officers constructing a telephone line through the Flathead National Forest	[192]
Figure	67.	Forest Ranger, accompanied by a lumberman, marking National Forest timber for cutting in a timber sale. Coconino National Forest, Arizona	[192]
Figure	68.	An excellent illustration showing the difference between unrestricted logging as practiced by lumbermen, and conservative logging as practiced by the Forest Service. In the foreground is the unrestricted logging which strips the soil of every stick of timber both large and small; in the background is the Forest Service logging area which preserves the young growth to insure a future supply of timber for the West. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana	[194]
Figure	69.	View showing the Forest Service method of piling the brush and débris after logging, and also how stump heights are kept down to prevent waste. New Mexico	[196]
Figure	70.	A tie-cutting operation on a National Forest. These piles of railroad ties are being inspected, stamped, and counted by Forest rangers. From this point the ties are "skidded" to the banks of a stream to be floated to the shipping point. Near Evanston, Wyoming	[196]
Figure	71.	Brush piles on a cut-over area before burning. Forest Service methods aim to clean up the forest after logging so that forest fires have less inflammable material to feed on. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana	[198]
Figure	72.	At a time of the year when there is least danger from fire the brush piles are burned. Missoula National Forest, Montana	[198]
Figure	73.	Counting sheep as they leave the corral. Sheep and cattle are pastured on the National Forests at so many cents per head, hence they must be counted before they enter in the spring. Wasatch National Forest, Utah	[208]
Figure	74.	Logging National Forest timber. Santa Fe National Forest, New Mexico	[208]
Figure	75.	Sheep grazing on the Montezuma National Forest at the foot of Mt. Wilson, Colorado. Over 7,500,000 sheep and goats grazed on the National Forests during the fiscal year 1917	[216]
Figure	76.	Grazing cattle on a National Forest in Colorado. Permits were issued during 1917 to graze over 2,000,000 cattle, horses, and swine on the National Forests	[216]
Figure	77.	North Clear Creek Falls, Rio Grande National Forest, Colorado. The National Forests contain about one-third of all the potential water-power resources of the United States	[230]
Figure	78.	The power plant of the Colorado Power Company, on the Grand River, Holy Cross National Forest, Colorado. Every fiscal year there is a substantial increase in water power development on the National Forests	[230]
Figure	79.	This is only one of the thousands of streams in the National Forests of the West capable of generating electric power. It has been estimated that over 40 per cent. of the water resources of the Western States are included in the National Forests. Photo by the author	[232]
Figure	80.	View in the famous orange belt of San Bernardino County, California. These orchards depend absolutely upon irrigation. The watersheds from which the necessary water comes are in the National Forests and are protected by the Forest Service. Some of the smaller watersheds in these mountains are said to irrigate orchards valued at $10,000,000	[232]

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[OUR NATIONAL FORESTS]

[CHAPTER I]
THE CREATION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS