The earlier history of the island has had such a great influence upon its present industrial and social condition, that a few remarks on the most important features of its history may find a place here.
Madeira was discovered in 1419, by two Portuguese, Joaõ Gonsalvo da Camara[14] and Tristaõ Teixeira, and, about 1421, a colony of Europeans settled on the island. Camara obtained, as a gift for his discovery, the south-eastern, and Teixeira the north-eastern part of the island, together with the most extensive powers and privileges. Funchal was then the principal place of Camara's territory, and Machico that of Teixeira's. These two recipients (donatarios) enjoyed the exclusive privileges of erecting flour and saw mills; they alone were allowed to build ovens for public baking (private baking being permitted to all); they, moreover, had the monopoly of trading in salt, had claims upon the tithes of the royal revenues, and were empowered to grant portions of the land to settlers. Every settler was required to erect within five years a house, a cottage, or barn, on his ground, and to cultivate the land. If these conditions, at the expiration of the fixed period, had not been complied with, the donor had the right of granting the land to some one else. These grants were hereditary, and lapsed to the crown, or the donors, if alive, in the event of there being no direct successors. Such extraordinary privileges and immunities were deemed necessary in order to reconcile the holders with the dubious character of the early settlers in the island; for, though in those times the highest families in Portugal took part in all adventurous expeditions, yet most of the settlers were taken from prison and convict hulks; and the first settlement of Madeira had much more the character of a place of banishment for criminals than that of a colony of free emigrants.
[14] Vulgarly called Zargo, or the Squinter.
With a view to obtain more ground for cultivation, the first settlers are said to have set on fire so large a portion of the primeval forests, that they were soon unable to check the conflagration. According to old writers, the fire, particularly in the south of the island, lasted several years; and the heat is said to have been so intense, that many persons in order to escape from it, sought refuge on board the ships in the roads of Funchal.[15]
[15] The name Madeira, signifying in Portuguese "timber or wood," justifies the statement that the island was at one time richly wooded.
This act of vandalism against nature, which is confirmed by ancient and modern authors, is being avenged even at present, though centuries have passed since the deed. The cedar, once a denizen of the island, is no longer to be found; and only the ceilings of the cathedral and of old houses, which are constructed of this costly material, show the magnitude which this noble tree formerly attained in the island. Of the dragon tree (Dracæna Draco), which was once the ornament of the forests of Madeira, there are at present, in the whole island, only six or seven specimens in existence, which are shown as curiosities to strangers. The Til-tree (Oreodaphne fœtens), the Vinhatico (Persea indica), and the Folhado (Clethra arborea), formerly the most numerous representatives of the native flora, are likewise at present very rarely to be met with, and their places are occupied by plants and trees of the temperate zone, particularly the Spanish chestnut, the fruit of which furnishes the inhabitants with food, whilst the tree itself has served hitherto in the north of the island as a support to the vine. The destruction of the forests has, at the same time, considerably contributed to the modification of the climate in general, and to the diminution of humidity in particular. At the date of the discovery of the island, and a long time after, the Rio Socorridos, the largest river in the island, is said to have been so deep, as to float timber from the interior to the sea; at present this river is quite insignificant, and almost dried up.
The island remained for two centuries in the possession of the direct heirs of the original owners, and when at last, from want of legal successors, these privileges lapsed, the crown granted them to other favourites; but with some restrictions. The exclusive right to corn and saw mills was then entirely abolished, and the salt monopoly with other privileges was retained by the crown. The descendants of the first settlers had in the mean time acquired considerable property in land, whilst the cultivation of the sugar-cane, now very generally adopted, the introduction of negro slaves from Africa, and the foundation of large estates, contributed materially to the prosperity of the inhabitants. The ruins of many large buildings in various parts of the island are even now mute witnesses of the opulence of their former occupants.
This prosperous state of the island was, however, at the beginning of the last century, materially affected by the introduction of the so-called vinculos or entails, which, introduced under the protection and in favour of the church, were a great burden upon the land. Frequently, rich proprietors left to the church portions of their incomes in order to have masses said for the repose of their souls, and encumbered their lands with so many burdens, that only a small remainder fell to their heirs. So long as these claims were in existence the proprietors could not grant leases for a longer period than four years, nor impose fresh burdens on their lands. The union of several such vinculos was called a morgado (entailed property). Under the severe but wise administration of the Marquis of Pombal, a law was passed which forbade the future creation of morgados (unless the property yielded an income of 1200 piastres annually, and even then the special licence of the crown had to be obtained), declaring the whole system of entails "as contrary to the rights of property and the well-founded claims of the other members of the family." The law of Dom Pedro, dated the 4th February, 1802, was still more severe, as it allowed at the same time the abolition of single entails, the value of which was below 200 Spanish piastres annually, as well as that of every morgado, the annual value of which did not exceed the sum of 600 piastres. As, however, a great number of these entails exceed 200 piastres, these oppressive restrictions still weigh upon four-fifths of the land, notwithstanding the above-mentioned laws. Among the creditors who still have claims, there are three nunneries (which alone, of all other similar institutions, outlived the revolution of 1821), the hospital of Funchal, and the Portuguese Government. The institution of these vinculos and morgados produced a kind of feudal dependency between the cultivator of the estates (caseiro) and the landlord or holder of the morgado. On the occasion of his marriage, or the birth of an heir to the latter, the caseiro brought presents of such fruits as his land produced; when the landlord removed from the town into the country, the caseiro carried his litter and luggage; in conversation the caseiro addressed the landlord as meu amo (my lord). The revolution of 1821 did away with many of these usages, and in various ways altered the relation between the caseiro and the landlord.
Another impediment to the improvement of agriculture, is the system of parcelling ground into small allotments, which has been continued up to the present time. The farms are in general extremely small. In the richer and more fertile parts of the island they rarely exceed an acre in extent, very often they are not half so large, and sometimes not even the tenth part of an acre. The late Conde de Carvalho, the proprietor of nearly one-third of the whole island, had upwards of eight thousand tenants. Supposing that this mode of farming existed in the remaining two-thirds, there would be in Madeira 24,000 farmers, caseiros or tenants; or, taking the population at 100,000 souls, nearly every fourth inhabitant would be a tenant farmer. This state of things is not to be wondered at, considering that almost every day-labourer farms a small patch of ground, the extent of which is not greater than the ordinary size of a large garden bed, on which he grows vegetables, potatoes, figs, peaches, sugar-cane, and sometimes even grain.
In the north and west of the island, where agriculture has made more progress than in the south, rent is paid in money; generally, however, the system of paying in kind is still in existence, in which the harvest, (after deducting the tithe, which, at Madeira, belongs to the State and not to the church,) is divided between the landlord and the tenants. According to this principle the landlord receives half of the produce of the ground, be it grain, sugar-cane, wine, fruit or vegetables, which are brought for sale, and not consumed on the farm itself. It sometimes happens, however, that the harvest is sold in a lump, while yet on the ground. Oxen are the only animals employed in agriculture. They are diminutive and singularly unsightly, but of a very powerful breed, and furnish very good meat for the table. They are generally fed in stalls, but in the mountainous districts they graze in open pastures. There are only a few badly-fed sheep on the island, so that the mutton is almost unfit for consumption. Pigs and fowls are in abundance, and the rearing of poultry is generally the principal means of living possessed by the peasantry. What is asserted by some authors regarding wild rabbits and boars to be met with on the island, wants confirmation. The few rabbits we saw were perfectly identical with the European species (Lepus cuniculus), and lead to the supposition that rabbits as well as pigs, now found in a wild state here and there on the island, are only the progeny of those which have formerly been introduced from Europe.