A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels - Volume 18 / Historical Sketch of the Progress of Discovery, Navigation, and / Commerce, from the Earliest Records to the Beginning of the Nineteenth / Century, By William Stevenson

by Robert Kerr; William Stevenson

The desire of obtaining the luxuries of the East, however, was the predominating principle, and the efficient cause of the extension of geography. Actuated by it, the passage of the Cape of Good Hope was accomplished; the eastern limits of Asia were reached; America was discovered, and even the Frozen Seas were braved and carefully examined, in the hope that by them a speedier passage might be found to the countries which produced these luxuries. At length the love of conquest, of wealth, and of luxury, which alone are sufficiently gross and stimulating in their nature to act on men in their rudest and least intellectual state, and which do not loose their hold on the most civilized, enlightened, and virtuous people, was assisted by the love of science; and though when this union took place, little of the globe was unknown, as respected its grand outline, and the general extent and relative situation of the seas and lands which compose its surface, yet much remained to be accomplished in determining the details of geography; in fixing accurately and scientifically the situation of places; in exhibiting the surface of the land, as it was distinguished by mountains, plains, lakes, rivers, &c.; in gaining a full and accurate knowledge of the natural history of each country, and of the manners, customs, institutions, religion, manufactures and commerce of its inhabitants.

Before we give a sketch of the progress of commercial enterprize during the last hundred years, it will be proper to notice the advancement of geographical science during the same period, and the assistance which was thus afforded, as well as from other sources, to those who travelled both by sea and land, for the purpose of discovering or exploring foreign and distant countries. This part of our subject seems naturally to divide itself into three parts; viz. the improvement of maps, which was equally advantageous to sea and land travellers; those particulars which rendered navigation more safe, easy, and expeditious; and those particulars which bestowed the same benefit on land travellers.

The science of geography dates its origin, as we have already mentioned, from Mercator, though he was unable to point out and explain the law, according to which the projection which bears his name might be laid down on fixed principles: this was effected by an Englishman of the name of Wright. Mathematical geography, strictly so called, seems to have owed its origin to the discussion respecting the flattening of the Poles, which took place, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, among Newton, Huygens, and Cassini, and which was afterwards continued by some of the most distinguished mathematicians and natural philosophers of France and England. Still, however, the construction of maps derived little advantage from the application of strict science to geography, till Delisle, in France, and Haase, in Germany, directed their attention and talents to this particular subject: their efforts were indeed great, but in some measure unavailing, in consequence of the want of sufficient materials. The same impediment lay in the way of Busching, notwithstanding he brought to the task the characteristic patience and research of a German. To him, however, and the more illustrious D'Anville, accurate delineations and descriptions of the countries of the globe may first justly be ascribed.

D'Anville possessed excellent and ample materials, in authentic relations, and plans and delineations made on the spot: with these he advanced to the task, calling to his aid mathematical principles. He first exhibited in his maps the interior of Asia free from that confusion and error by which all former maps had obscured it; and struck out from his map of Africa many imaginary kingdoms. Ancient geography, and the still more involved and dark geography of the middle ages, received from him the first illumination; and if subsequent geographers have been able to add to and correct his labours, it has been chiefly owing to their possessing materials which did not exist in his time.

Busching confined himself entirely to modern geography; and though his minuteness is generally tiresome and superfluous, yet we can pardon it, for the accuracy of his details: he was patronized and assisted in his labours by all the governments, of the north, who gave him access to every document which could further his object.

Since the time of D'Anville and Busching, the description of countries, and the construction of maps, have proceeded with a rapidly encreasing decree of accuracy. In ancient geography, Gosselin, Rennell, Vincent, and Malte Brun, are among the most celebrated names. Two Germans, Voss and Munnert, have directed their labours to illustrate and explain the geographical details and hints of the Greek poets. It would be almost endless to enumerate those to whom modern geography, and the construction of modern maps are principally indebted. Gaspari and Zimmerman, among the Germans, have thrown into a philosophical and interesting form the labours and heavy details which were supplied them by less original but more plodding men. The English, though, as Malte Brun observes, they are still without a system of geography which deserves the name, are rich in excellent materials, which have been supplied by the extent of their dominions and their commerce in various parts of the globe; by their laudable and happy union of conquest, commerce, and science; and by the advantage which Dalrymple, Arrowsmith, and other geographers have derived from these circumstances. The French, Russians, Spaniards, Danes, and indeed most nations of Europe, sensible of the vast importance of accurate maps, especially such as relate to their respective territories, have contributed to render them much more accurate than they formerly were; so that at present there is scarcely any part of the globe, which has been visited by sea or land, of-which we do not possess accurate maps; and no sooner has the labour of any traveller filled up a void, or corrected an error, than the map of the country which he has visited becomes more full and accurate.

The most direct and perfect application of mathematical and astronomical science to the delineation of the surface of the globe, so as to ascertain its exact form, and the exact extent of degrees of latitude in different parts of it, has been made by the English and French; and much to their honour, by them in conjunction. The first modern measurement of degrees of latitude was made by an Englishman of the name of Norwood: he ascertained the difference of latitude between London and York in 1635, and then measured their distance: from these premises he calculated, that the length of a degree was 122,399 English yards. At this time there was no reason to suppose that the earth was flattened at the Poles. Shortly afterwards, it having been discovered that the weights of bodies were less at the equator than at Paris, Huygens and Cassini directed their attention, as we have already stated, to the subject of the figure of the earth. In 1670 Picard measured an arc of the meridian in France; and in 1718, the whole area extending through France was measured by Cassini and other philosophers. The results of this measurement seemed to disprove Newton's theory, that the curvature of the earth diminished as we recede from the equator. To remove all doubts, an arc near the equator was measured in Peru, by some French and Spanish astronomers; and an arc near the arctic circle by some French and Swedish astronomers; the result was a confirmation of Newton's theory, and that the equatorial diameter exceeded the polar by about 1/204 part of the whole.

Since this period, arcs of the meridian have been measured in several countries. In 1787 it was determined by the British and French governments to connect the observatories of Greenwich and Paris by a series of triangles, and to compare the differences of latitudes and longitudes, ascertained by astronomical observations, with those ascertained by actual measurement. The measurement in England was extended to a survey of the whole kingdom; and the accurate maps thus obtained have been since published. Arcs of the meridian have also been measured lately from Dunkirk to Barcelona,--in Lapland, by which an error in the former measurement there was corrected;--and in India.

We have been thus particular in our notice of this subject, because it is evident that such measurements must lie at the foundation of all real improvements in the construction of maps.

Let us next turn our attention to the improvements in navigation which have taken place during the last and present centuries; these seem to consist, principally, in those which are derived from physical science, and those which are derived from other sources.