"That branch of natural knowledge which may be called nautical astronomy, was undoubtedly in its infancy when these voyages were first undertaken. Both instruments and observers, which deserved the name, were very rare; and so late as the year 1770, it was thought necessary, in the appendix to Mayor's Tables, published by the Board of Longitude, to state facts, in contradiction to the assertions of so celebrated an astronomer as the Abbé de la Caille, that the altitude of the sun at noon, the easiest and most simple of all observations, could not be taken with certainty to a less quantity than five, six, seven, or even eight minutes.[53] But those who will give themselves the trouble to look into the astronomical observations, made in Captain Cook's last voyage, will find, that there were few, even of the petty officers, who could not observe the distance of the moon from the sun, or a star, the most delicate of all observations, with sufficient accuracy. It may be added, that the method of making and computing observations for finding the variation of the compass, is better known, and more frequently practised, by those who have been on these voyages, than by most others. Nor is there, perhaps, a person who ranks as an officer, and has been concerned in them, who would not, whatever his real skill may be, feel ashamed to have it thought that he did not know how to observe for, and compute the time at sea; though, but a short while before these voyages were set on foot, such a thing was scarcely ever heard of amongst seamen; and even first-rate astronomers doubted the possibility of doing it with sufficient exactness.[54]
[Footnote 53: The Abbé's words are,--"Si ceux qui promettent une si grande precision dans ces sortes de methodes, avoient navigué quelques temps, ils auroient vû souvent, que dans l'observation la plus simple de toutes, qui est celle de la hauteur du soleil à midi, deux observations, munis de bons quartiers de reflexion, bien rectifiés, different entr'eux, lorsqu'ils observent chacun à part, de 5', 6', 7', & 8'."--Ephémer. 1755--1765. Introduction, p. 32.
It must be, however, mentioned, in justice to M. de la Caille, that he attempted to introduce the lunar method of discovering the longitude, and proposed a plan of calculations of the moon's distance from the sun and fixed stars; but, through the imperfection of his instruments, his success was much less than that method was capable of affording. The bringing it into general use was reserved for Dr Maskelyne, our Astronomer Royal. See the preface to the Tables for correcting the Effects of Refraction and Parallax, published by the Board of Longitude, under the direction of Dr Shepherd, Flumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy at Cambridge, in 1772.--D.]
[Footnote 54: In addition, to Mr Wales's remark, it may be observed, that the proficiency of our naval officers in taking observations at sea, must ultimately be attributed to the great attention paid to this important object by the Board of Longitude at home; liberal rewards having been given to mathematicians for perfecting the lunar tables, and facilitating calculations, and to artists for constructing more accurate instruments for observing, and watches better adapted to keeping time at sea. It appears, therefore, that the voyages of discovery, and the operations of the Board of Longitude, went hand in hand; and they must be combined, in order to form a just estimate of the extent of the plan carried into execution since his majesty's accession, for improving astronomy and navigation. But, besides the establishment of the Board of Longitude on its present footing, which has had such important consequences, it must also be ever acknowledged, that his present majesty has extended his royal patronage to every branch of the liberal arts and useful science. The munificent present to the Royal Society for defraying the expence of observing the transit of Venus; the institution of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture; the magnificent apartments allotted to the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and to the Royal Academy at Somerset-Place; the support of the Garden of Exotics at Kew, to improve which Mr Masson was sent to the extremities of Africa; the substantial encouragement afforded to learned men and learned works in various departments, and particularly that afforded to Mr Herschel, which has enabled him to devote himself entirely to the improvement of astronomy;--these, and many other instances which might be enumerated, would have greatly distinguished his majesty's reign, even if he had not been the patron of those successful attempts to perfect geography and navigation by so many voyages of discovery.--D.
It is scarcely necessary to add to this note by saying, that the period which has elapsed since the first publication of this voyage, has not witnessed any failure of the promises held out by the previous state of science, notwithstanding the calamities and embarrassments attendant on the revolutionary frenzy that, in some degree, infected every country in Europe. Science, indeed, has peculiarly prospered amid the miseries of the world. In pity of the destructive work, in which man's bad passions had been engaged with such industrious ferocity, she has held out in one hand a remedy for the evil, and pointed with the other to the blessings of peace. Is it unreasonable to hope, that the precious seed sown in such tumultuous times as we have witnessed, and are now witnessing, will ere long yield a rich harvest to reward the industry of her labourers? But let, us not limit our expectations and toils to the completion of mere minutiae, as Dr Douglas speaks. The opinion of plenty, says Lord Bacon, is one of the causes of want. A more unfavourable symptom of our condition could hardly be found, than a belief that we had reached perfection. Let us rather think that greater progress may yet be made in beneficial arts and sciences than ever was made hitherto, and be therefore stimulated to more ambitious exertions. It will be no glory to the next generation that we have gone so far, if they themselves are not invited and enabled by our success to get beyond us.--E.]
"The number of places at which the rise and times of flowing of tides have been observed, in these voyages, is very great, and hence an important article of useful knowledge is afforded. In these observations, some very curious, and even unexpected, circumstances, have offered themselves to our consideration. It will be sufficient to instance the exceedingly small height to which the tide rises in the middle of the great Pacific Ocean, where it falls short, two-thirds at least, of what might have been expected from theory and calculation.
"The direction and force of currents at sea, make also an important object. These voyages will be found to contain much useful information on this head, as well relating to seas nearer home, and which, in consequence, are navigated every day, as to those which are more remote, but where, notwithstanding, the knowledge of these things may be of great service to those who are destined to navigate them hereafter. To this head also we may refer the great number of experiments which have been made for enquiring into the depth of the sea, its temperature, and saltness at different depths, and in a variety of places and climates.
"An extensive foundation has also been laid for improvements in magnetism, for discovering the cause and nature of the polarity of the needle, and a theory of its variations, by the number and variety of the observations and experiments which have been made, both on the variation and dip, in almost all parts of the world. Experiments also have been made, in consequence of the late voyages, on the effects of gravity in different and very distant places, which may serve to increase our stock of natural knowledge. From the same source of information we have learned, that the phenomenon, usually called the aurora borealis, is not peculiar to high northern latitudes, but belongs equally to all cold climates, whether they be north or south.
"But, perhaps, no part of knowledge has been so great a gainer by the late voyages as that of botany. We are told,[55] that at least twelve hundred new plants have been added to the known system; and that very considerable additions have been made to every other branch of natural history, by the great skill and industry of Sir Joseph Banks, and the other gentlemen who have accompanied Captain Cook for that purpose."
[Footnote 55: See Dr Shepherd's Preface, as abovE.]
To our naval officers in general, or to their learned associates in the expeditions, all the foregoing improvements of knowledge may be traced; but there is one very singular improvement indeed, still behind, for which, as we are solely indebted to Captain Cook, let us state it in his own words: "Whatever may be the public judgment about other matters, it is with real satisfaction, and without claiming any merit but that of attention to my duty, that I can conclude this account with an observation, which facts enable me to make, that our having discovered the possibility of preserving health amongst a numerous ship's company for such a length of time, in such varieties of climate, and amidst such continued hardships and fatigues, will make this voyage remarkable in the opinion of every benevolent person, when the disputes about a southern continent shall have ceased to engage the attention and to divide the judgment of philosophers."[56]
[Footnote 56: 34: Cook's second voyagE.]