Fig. 57b.—At the Summit of the Rigi.
Many inclined railways are now in operation in various parts of the world, as at Mount Vesuvius, where two of the slopes have a combined length of 10,500 feet; at Mount Supurga and at Mount San Salvatore there are others. At Burgen-stock in Switzerland there is one having a slope 57 feet vertical to 100 feet horizontal. These are cable inclines; but a rack is also used with a pinion regulated by a friction-brake to avoid accident, in case of the cable parting. The largest inclined railway in America is at the Catskill Mountains, where an ascent of 1,600 feet is made in a horizontal distance of 6,780 feet. In this a novel plan has been adopted for compensating the varying weight that has to be moved, for it is obvious that at the commencement the load at the top of the incline has to raise not only that at the bottom, but the whole weight of the cable also, equal to 35,000 pounds of wire rope, and again after the middle point has been passed, the descending power is constantly increasing, while the load being raised is diminishing. Now, in order that the engine may work with more uniform effect, the engineer has not made the incline a straight line, but with the slope lightest at the bottom and gradually increased towards the top, so that the line is really a curve in the vertical plane, and has at every point just the inclination required for balancing the weight of the wire cable, as this shifts from the one track to the other. Instead of a rack pinion and brake to control a too rapid descent from any accident, the cars are provided with clutches, which are automatically thrown out on wooden guard-rails, when a safe speed is exceeded. Inclined railways have also been constructed to the summit of Snowdon, in North Wales, and to that of the Jungfrau, in Switzerland.
PLATE VII.
PIKE’S PEAK RAILWAY, ROCKY MOUNTAINS.
Fig. 58.—The Great Eastern at Anchor.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
The first practically successful steamboat was constructed by Symington, and used on the Forth and Clyde Canal in 1802. A few years afterwards Fulton established steam navigation in American waters, where a number of steamboats plied regularly for some years before the invention had received a corresponding development in England, for it was not until 1814 that a steam-packet ran for hire in the Thames. From that time, however, the principle was quickly and extensively applied, and steamers made their appearance on the chief rivers of Great Britain, and soon began also to make regular passages from one sea-port to another, until at length, in 1819, a steamer made the voyage from New York to Liverpool. It does not appear, however, that such ocean steam voyages became at once common, for we read that in 1825 the captain of the first steam-ship which made the voyage to India was rewarded by a large sum of money. It was not until 1838 that regular steam communication with America was commenced by the dispatch of the Great Western from Bristol. Other large steamers were soon built expressly for the passage of the Atlantic, and a new era in steam navigation was reached when, in 1845, the Great Britain made her first voyage to New York in fourteen days. This ship was of immense size, compared with her predecessors, her length being 320 ft., and she was moreover made of iron, while instead of paddles, she was provided with a screw-propeller, both circumstances at that time novelties in passenger ships. Fulton appears to have made trial in America of various forms of mechanism for propelling ships through the water. Among other plans he tried the screw, but finally decided in favour of paddle-wheels, and for a long time these were universally adopted. Many ships of war were built with paddle-wheels, but the advantages of the screw-propeller were at length perceived. The paddle-wheels could easily be disabled by an enemy’s shot, and the large paddle-boxes encumbered the decks and obstructed the operations of naval warfare. Another circumstance perhaps had a greater share in the general adoption of the screw, which had long before been proposed as a means of applying steam power to the propulsion of vessels. This was the introduction of a new method of placing the screw, so that its powers were used to greater advantage. Mr. J. P. Smith obtained a patent in 1836 for placing the propeller in that part of the vessel technically called the dead-wood, which is above the keel and immediately in front of the rudder. When the means of propulsion in a ship of war is so placed, this vital part is secure from injury by hostile projectiles, and the decks are clear for training guns and other operations. Thus placed, the screw has been proved to possess many advantages over paddle-wheels, so that at the present time it has largely superseded paddle-wheels in vessels of every class, except perhaps in those intended to ply on rivers and lakes. Many fine paddle-wheel vessels are still afloat, but sea-going steamers are nearly always now built with screw-propellers. In the application of the steam engine to navigation the machine has received many modifications in the form and arrangement of the parts, but in principle the marine engine is identical with the condensing engine already described. The engines in steam-ships are often remarkable for the great diameter given to the cylinders, which may be 8 ft. or 9 ft. or more. Of course other parts of the machinery are of corresponding dimensions. Such large cylinders require the exercise of great skill in their construction, for they must be cast in one piece and without flaws. The engraving, Fig. [59], depicts the scene presented at the works of Messrs. Penn during the casting of one of these large cylinders, the weight of which may amount to perhaps 30 tons. Only the top of the mould is visible, and the molten iron is being poured in from huge ladles, moved by powerful cranes. In paddle vessels the great wrought iron shaft which carries the paddle-wheels crosses the vessel from side to side. This shaft has two cranks, placed at right angles to each, and each one is turned by an engine, which is very commonly of the kind known as the side-lever engine. In this engine, instead of a beam being placed above the cylinder, two beams are used, one being set on each side of the cylinder, as low down as possible. The top of the piston-rod is attached to a crosshead, from each end of which hangs a great rod, which is hinged to the end of the side-beam. The other ends of the two beams are united by a cross-bar, to which is attached the connecting-rod that gives motion to the crank. Another favourite form of engine for steam-ships is that with oscillating cylinders. The paddle-wheels are constructed with an iron framework, to which flat boards, or floats, are attached, placed usually in a radial direction. But when thus fixed, each float enters the water obliquely, and in fact its surface is perpendicular to the direction of the vessel’s course only at the instant the float is vertically under the axis of the wheel. In order to avoid the loss of power consequent upon this oblique movement of the floats, they are sometimes hung upon centres, and are so moved by suitable mechanism that they are always in a nearly vertical position when passing through the water. Paddle-wheels constructed in this manner are termed feathering wheels. They do not appear, however, to possess any great advantage over those of the ordinary construction, except when the paddles are deeply immersed in the water, and this result may be better understood when we reflect that the actual path of the floats through the water is not circular, as it would be if the vessel itself did not move; for all points of the wheel describe peculiar curves called cycloids, which result from the combination of the circular with the onward movement.
