Discoveries and Inventions of the Nineteenth Century

by Robert Routledge

From No. V. in the above table we learn that if the Captain had been heeled to 54°, the centre of gravity would have overtaken the centre of buoyancy—that is, the two would have been in one vertical line. Any further heeling would have brought the points into the position shown in Fig. [75], where it is obvious that the action of the forces is now to turn the vessel still more on its side, and the result is an upsetting couple instead of a righting couple.

These figures and considerations refer to the case of the vessel floating in smooth water, but the case of a vessel floating on a wave is not different in principle. The reader may picture to himself the diagrams inclined so that the water-line may represent a portion of the wave’s surface; then he must remember that the very action which heaves up the water in a sloping surface is so compounded with gravity, that the forces acting through G and B retain nearly the same position relatively to the surface as before.

No. VI. in the foregoing table requires some explanation. To heel a ship over to a certain angle a certain amount of work must be done, and in the scientific sense work is done only when something is moved through a space against a resistance. When the weight of a ton is raised 1 ft. high, one foot ton of work is said to be done; if 2 tons were raised 1 ft., or 1 ton were raised 2 ft., then two foot-tons of work would be done, and so on. The same would be the case if a pressure equal to those weights were applied so as to move a thing in any direction through the same distances. It should be carefully noticed that the foot-ton is quite a different unit in this case from what it is as the moment of a couple. If we heel a ship over by applying a pressure on the masts, it is plain that the pressure must act through a certain space, and the same heel could be caused either by means of a smaller pressure or a greater, according as we apply it higher up or lower down; but the space through which it must act would vary, so that the product of the pressure and space would, however, be always the same. No. VI. shows the amount of work that would have to be done in order completely to upset each of the vessels when already steadily heeled over to 14°. The amounts in the two cases are so different that we can easily understand how a squall which would not endanger the Monarch might throw the Captain over. A squall suddenly springing up would do more than heel a vessel over to the angle at which it is able to maintain it: it would swing it beyond that position by reason of the work done on the sails as they are moving over with the vessel, and the latter would come to a steady angle of heel only after a series of oscillations. Squalls, again, which, although suddenly springing up in this manner, could not heel the ship over beyond the angle where the stability vanishes, might yet do so if they were intermittent and should happen to coincide in time with the oscillations of the ship—just as a series of very small impulses, coinciding with the time of the vibrations of a heavy pendulum, may accumulate so as to increase the range of vibration to any extent. It is believed that in the case of the Captain the pressure of the wind on the underside of the hurricane assisted in upsetting the vessel. This, however, could only have exerted a very small effect compared to that produced by the sails. The instability of the Captain does not appear to have been discovered by such calculations as were made before the vessel went to sea. It was observed, however, that the ship when afloat was 1 ft. 6 in. deeper in the water than she should have been—in other words, the freeboard, or side of the ship out of the water, instead of being 8 ft. high as intended, was only 6 ft. 6 in., and such a difference would have a great effect on the stability.

Fig. 76.—H.M.S. Glatton.

The turret system has been applied to other ships on quite a different plan. Of these the Glatton is one of the most remarkable. Her appearance is very singular, and totally unlike that which we look for in a ship, as may be seen by an inspection of Fig. [76], page [162]. The Glatton, which was launched in 1871, is of the Monitor class, and was designed by Mr. E. J. Reed, who has sought to give the ship the most complete protection. With this view the hull is covered with iron plates below the water-line, and the deck also is cased with 3 in. iron plates, to resist shot or shell falling vertically. The base of the turret is shielded by a massive breastwork, which is a peculiarity of this ship. The large quantity of iron required for all these extra defences has, of course, the effect of increasing the immersion of the vessel, and therefore of diminishing her speed. The freeboard when the ship is in ordinary trim is only 3 ft. high, and means are provided for admitting water to the lowest compartment, so as to increase the immersion by 1 ft., thus reducing the freeboard to only 2 ft. when the vessel is in fighting trim, leaving only that small portion of the hull above water as a mark for the enemy. The water ballast can be pumped out when no longer needed. The Glatton is 245 ft. long and 54 ft. broad, and she draws 19 ft. of water with the freeboard of 3 ft., displacing 4,865 tons of water, while, with the 2 ft. freeboard, the displacement is 5,179 tons. This ship cost £210,000. Mr. Reed wished to construct a vessel of much larger size on the same plan—a proposal to which, however, the Admiralty did not then consent. The Glatton is, nevertheless, one of the most powerful ships of war ever built, and may be considered as an impregnable floating fortress. Above the water-line the hull is covered with armour plates 12 in. thick, supported by 20 in. of teak backing, and an inner layer of iron 1 in. thick. Below the water-line the iron is 8 in. thick, and the teak 10 in. The revolving turret carries two 25–ton guns, firing each a 600 lb. shot, and is covered by a massive plating of iron 14 in. in thickness. Besides this the base of the turret is protected by a breastwork rising 6 ft. above the hull. This breastwork is formed of plates 12 in. thick, fastened on 18 in. of teak. The turret rises 7 ft. above the breastwork, and therefore the latter in no way impedes the working of the guns. The Glatton has a great advantage over all the other turret ships in having a perfectly unimpeded fore range for her guns, for there is no mast or other object to prevent the guns being fired directly over the bow. There are no sails, the mast being intended only for flying signals and hoisting up boats, &c. The hull is divided by vertical partitions into nine water-tight compartments, and also into three horizontal flats—the lowest being air-tight, and having arrangements for the admission and removal of water, as already mentioned. The stem of the ship is protruded forwards below the water for about 8 ft., thus forming a huge ram which would itself render the Glatton a truly formidable antagonist at close quarters even if her guns were not used. The engines are capable of being worked up to 3,000 horse-power, giving the ship a speed of 9½ knots per hour, and means are provided for turning the turret by steam power. The turret can be rotated by manual labour, requiring about three minutes for its complete revolution, but by steam power the operation can be effected in half a minute. The commander communicates his orders from the pilot-house on the hurricane deck to the engine-room, steering-house, and turret, by means of speaking-tubes and electric telegraphs. The Glatton was not designed to be ocean-going, but is intended for coast defence.

Fig. 77.—H.M.S. Thunderer.

The British navy contains two powerful turret-ships constructed on the same general plan as the Glatton, but larger, and capable of steaming at a greater speed, and of carrying coal for a long voyage. These sister ships are named the Devastation, Fig. [69], and the Thunderer, Fig. [77]. The Thunderer has two turrets and a freeboard of 4 ft. 6 in. Space is provided for a store of 1,800 tons of coal, of which the Glatton can carry only 500 tons. The vessel is fitted with twin screws, turned by two pairs of independent engines, capable of working up to 5,600 horse-power, and she can steam at the rate of 12 knots, or nearly 14 miles, an hour. With the large supply of coal she can carry, the Thunderer could make a voyage of 3,000 miles without re-coaling. Though the freeboard of the heavily-plated hull is only 4 ft. 6 in., a lighter iron superstructure, indicated in the figure by the light shading, rises from the deck to the height of 7 ft., making the real freeboard nearly 12 ft. This gives the ship much greater stability, and prevents her from rolling heavily when at sea. The length is 285 ft. and the width 58 ft., and the draught 26 ft. The hull is double, the distance between the outer and inner skins of the bottom being 4 ft. 6 in. The framing is very strong and on the longitudinal principle, and the keel is formed of Bessemer steel. Each turret is 24 ft. 3 in. in internal diameter, and is built with five layers of teak and iron. Beginning at the inside, there is a lining of 2⅝ in. iron plates; then 6 in. of teak in iron frames, arranged horizontally; 6 in. of armour plates; 9 in. of teak, placed vertically; outside of all, 8 in. armour plates. Each turret carries two Fraser 35–ton guns, rifled muzzle-loaders. The turrets revolve by hand or by steam-power. There are no sails, and thus a clear range for the guns is afforded fore and aft. The bases of the turrets are protected by the armoured breastwork, of which a portion is seen in the figure in advance of the fore turret.

Another very powerful ship of war, which possesses some special features, is represented in the diagram on page [165], Fig. [78]. This vessel, named the König Wilhelm, was built at Blackwall for the Prussian Government by the Thames Ironworks and Steam Shipbuilding Company, from designs by Mr. Reed. Her length is 365 ft., width 60 ft.; burthen, 6,000 tons; displacement, 8,500 tons. She is framed longitudinally, that is, girders pass from end to end, about 7 ft. apart, and the stem projects into a pointed ram. In this case also the hull is double; there is, in fact, one hull within another, with a space of 4½ ft. between them. The armour plates are 8 in. in thickness, with 10 in. of teak backing; but on the less important parts the thickness of the iron is reduced to 6 in., and in some places to 4 in. This ship has a broadside battery, and there are no turrets, but on the deck there are, fore and aft, two semicircular shields, formed of iron plates and teak, pierced with port-holes for cannon, and also with loop-holes for muskets. From these a fore-and-aft fire may be kept up. The ship is fully rigged, and has also steam engines of 7,000 horse-power, by Maudslay and Co. Her armament consists of four three-hundred-pounders, capable of delivering fore-and-aft as well as broadside fire, and twenty-three other guns of the same size between decks. These guns are all Krupp’s steel breech-loaders.