The Earth's Beginning

by Robert S. Ball

The nebular theory discloses the beginning of this earth itself. It points out the marvellous process by which from original chaos the firm globe on which we stand was gradually evolved. It shows how the foundations of this solid earth have been laid, and how it is that we have land to tread on and air to breathe. But the subject has a scope far wider than merely in its relation to our earth. The nebular theory accounts for the beginning of that great and glorious orb the sun, which presides over the system of revolving planets, guides them in their paths, illuminates them with its light, and stimulates the activities of their inhabitants with its genial warmth. The nebular theory explains how it comes about that the sun still continues in these latter days to shine with the brilliance and warmth that it had throughout the past ages of human history and the vastly greater periods of geological time. Then, as another supreme achievement, it discloses the origin of the planets which accompany the sun, and shows how they have come to run their mighty courses; and it tells us how revolving satellites have been associated with the planets. The nebular theory has, indeed, a remarkable relation to all objects belonging to that wonderful scheme which we call the solar system.

It should also be noticed that the nebular theory often brings facts of the most diverse character into striking apposition. As it accounts for the continued maintenance of the solar radiation, so it also accounts for that beneficent rotation by which each continent, after the enjoyment of a day under the invigorating rays of the sun, passes in due alternation into the repose of night. The nebular theory is ready with an explanation of the marvellous structure revealed in the rings of Saturn, and it shows at the same time how the volcanoes of the moon acquired their past phenomenal activity, and why, after ages of activity, they have now at last become extinct. With equal versatility the nebular theory will explain why a collier experiences increasing heat as he descends the coalpit, and why the planet Jupiter is marked with those belts which have so much interest for the astronomer. The nebular theory offers an immediate explanation of the earthquake which wrought such awful destruction at Lisbon, while it also points out the cause of that healing warmth of the waters at Bath. Above all, the nebular theory explains that peerless discovery of cosmical chemistry which declares that those particular elements of which the sun is composed are no other than the elements which form the earth beneath our feet.

When a doctrine of such transcendent importance is proposed for our acceptance, it is fitting that we should look, in the first instance, to the source from which the doctrine has emanated. It would already have made good its claim to most careful hearing, though not perhaps to necessary acceptance, if it came to us bearing credentials which prove it to be the outcome of the thought and research of one endowed with the highest order of intellect. If the nebular theory had been propounded by only a single great leader of thought, the sublimity of the subject with which it deals would have compelled the attention of those who love to study the book of Nature. If it had appeared that a second investigator, also famous for the loftiest intellectual achievement, had given to the nebular theory the sanction of his name, a very much stronger claim for its consideration would at once have been established. If it should further appear that yet a third philosopher, a man who was also an intellectual giant, had been conducted to somewhat similar conclusions, we should admit, I need hardly say, that the argument had been presented with still further force. It may also be observed that there might even be certain conditions in the work of the three philosophers which would make for additional strength in the cause advocated; if it should be found that each of the great men of science had arrived at the same conclusion irrespective of the others, and, indeed, in total ignorance of the line of thought which his illustrious compeers were pursuing, this would, of course, be in itself a corroboration. If, finally, the methods of research adopted by these investigators had been wholly different, although converging to the establishment of the theory, then even the most sceptical might be disposed to concede the startling claim which the theory made upon his reason and his imagination.

All the conditions that I have assumed have been fulfilled in the presentation of the nebular theory to the scientific world. It would not be possible to point to three names more eminent in their respective branches of knowledge than those of Kant, Laplace, and William Herschel. Kant occupies a unique position by the profundity and breadth of his philosophical studies; Laplace applied the great discoveries of Newton to the investigation of the movements of the heavenly bodies, publishing the results in his immortal work, Mécanique Céleste; Herschel has been the greatest and the most original observer of the heavens since the telescope was invented. It is not a little remarkable that the great philosopher from his profound meditation, the great mathematician from a life devoted to calculations about the laws of Nature, the great observer from sounding the depths of the firmament, should each in the pursuit of his own line of work have been led to believe that the grand course of Nature is essentially expressed by the nebular theory. There have been differences of detail in the three theories; indeed, there have been differences in points which are by no means unimportant. This was unavoidable in the case of workers along lines so distinct, and of a subject where many of the elements were still unknown, as indeed many are still. Even at the present day no man can give a complete account of what has happened in the great evolution. But the monumental fact remains that these three most sagacious men of science, whose lives were devoted to the pursuit of knowledge, each approaching the subject from his own direction, each pursuing his course in ignorance of what the others were doing, were substantially led to the same result. The progress of knowledge since the time when these great men lived has confirmed, in ways which we shall endeavour to set forth, the sublime doctrine to which their genius had conducted them.

Immanuel Kant, whose grandfather was a Scotsman, was born in 1724 at Königsberg, where his life was spent as a professor in the University, and where he died in 1804. In the announcement of the application of the principle of evolution to the solar system, Laplace was preceded by this great German philosopher. The profound thinker who expounded the famous doctrine of time and space did not disdain to allow his attention to be also occupied with things more material than the subtleties of metaphysical investigation. As a natural philosopher Kant was much in advance of his time. His speculations on questions relating to the operations in progress in the material universe are in remarkable conformity with what is now accepted as the result of modern investigation. Kant outlined with a firmness inspired by genius that nebular theory to which Laplace subsequently and independently gave a more definite form, and which now bears his name.

Kant’s famous work with which we are now concerned appeared in 1755.[^[1]] In it he laid down the immortal principle of the nebular theory. The greatness of this book is acknowledged by all who have read it, and notwithstanding that the progress of knowledge has made it obvious that many of the statements it contains must now receive modification, Kant’s work contains the essential principle affirming that the earth, the sun, the planets, and all the bodies now forming the solar system did really originate from a vast contracting nebula. In later years Kant’s attention was diverted from these physical questions to that profound system of philosophy with which his name is chiefly associated. The nebular theory is therefore to be regarded as incidental to Kant’s great lifework rather than as forming a very large and important part of it.

[1]. We are now fortunately able to refer the English reader to the work of Professor W. Hastie, D.D., entitled “Kant’s Cosmogony,” Glasgow, 1900. Kant’s most interesting career is charmingly described in De Quincey’s “Last Days of Immanuel Kant.”

IMMANUEL KANT.
(From an old Print.)

At the close of the last century, while France was in the throes of the Revolution, a school of French mathematicians was engaged in the accomplishment of a task which marked an epoch in the history of human thought. Foremost among the mathematicians who devoted their energies to the discussion of the great problems of the universe was the illustrious Laplace. As a personal friend of Napoleon, Laplace received marked distinction from the Emperor, who was himself enough of a mathematician to be able to estimate at their true value the magnificent results to which Laplace was conducted.