The Story of the Heavens

by Robert S. Ball

As comets are much nearer to the earth than the stars, it will occasionally happen that the comet must arrive at a position directly between the earth and a star. There is quite a similar phenomenon in the movement of the moon. A star is frequently occulted in this way, and the observations of such phenomena are familiar to astronomers; but when a comet passes in front of a star the circumstances are widely different. The star is indeed seen nearly as well through the comet as it would be if the comet were entirely out of the way. This has often been noticed. One of the most celebrated observations of this kind was made by the late Sir John Herschel on Biela's comet, which is one of the periodic class, and will be alluded to in the next chapter. The illustrious astronomer saw on one occasion this object pass over a star cluster. It consisted of excessively minute stars, which could only be seen by a powerful telescope, such as the one Sir John was using. The faintest haze or the merest trace of a cloud would have sufficed to hide all the stars. It was therefore with no little interest that the astronomer watched the progress of Biela's comet. Gradually the wanderer encroached on the group of stars, so that if it had any appreciable solidity the numerous twinkling points would have been completely screened. But what were the facts? Down to the most minute star in that cluster, down to the smallest point of light which the great telescope could show, every object in the group was distinctly seen to twinkle right through the mass of Biela's comet.

This was an important observation. We must recollect that the veil drawn between the cluster and the telescope was not a thin curtain; it was a volume of cometary substance many thousands of miles in thickness. Contrast, then, the almost inconceivable tenuity of a comet with the clouds to which we are accustomed. A cloud a few hundred feet thick will hide not only the stars, but even the great sun himself. The lightest haze that ever floated in a summer sky would do more to screen the stars from our view than would one hundred thousand miles of such cometary material as was here interposed.

The great comet of Donati passed over many stars which were visible distinctly through its tail. Among these stars was a very bright one—the well-known Arcturus. The comet, fortunately, happened to pass over Arcturus, and though nearly the densest part of the comet was interposed between the earth and the star, yet Arcturus twinkled on with undiminished lustre through the thickness of this stupendous curtain. Recent observations have, however, shown that stars in some cases experience change in lustre when the denser part of the comet passes over them. It is, indeed, difficult to imagine that a star would remain visible if the nucleus of a really large comet passed over it; but it does not seem that an opportunity of testing this supposition has yet arisen.

As a comet contains transparent gaseous material we might expect that the place of a star would be deranged when the comet approached it. The refractive power of air is very considerable. When we look at the sunset, we see the sun appearing to pass below the horizon; yet the sun has actually sunk beneath the horizon before any part of its disk appears to have commenced its descent. The refractive power of the air bends the luminous rays round and shows the sun, though it is directly screened by the intervening obstacles. The refractive power of the material of comets has been carefully tested. A comet has been observed to approach two stars; one of which was seen through the comet, while the other could be observed directly. If the body had any appreciable quantity of gas in its composition the relative places of the two stars would be altered. This question has been more than once submitted to the test of actual measurement. It has sometimes been found that no appreciable change of position could be detected, and that accordingly in such cases the comet has no perceptible density. Careful measurements of the great comet in 1881 showed, however, that in the neighbourhood of the nucleus there was some refractive power, though quite insignificant in comparison with the refraction of our atmosphere.

PLATE C.
COMET A 1892, 1. SWIFT.
Photographed by E.E. Barnard, 7th April, 1892.

From these considerations it will probably be at once admitted that the mass of a comet must be indeed a very small quantity in comparison with its bulk. When we attempt actually to weigh the comet, our efforts have proved abortive. We have been able to weigh the mighty planets Jupiter and Saturn; we have been even able to weigh the vast sun himself; the law of gravitation has provided us with a stupendous weighing apparatus, which has been applied in all these cases with success, but the same methods applied to comets are speedily seen to be illusory. No weighing machinery known to the astronomer is delicate enough to determine the weight of a comet. All that we can accomplish in any circumstances is to weigh one heavenly body in comparison with another. Comets seem to be almost imponderable when estimated by such robust masses as those of the earth, or any of the other great planets. Of course, it will be understood that when we say the weight of a comet is inappreciable, we mean with regard to the other bodies of our system. Perhaps no one now doubts that a great comet must really weigh tons; though whether those tons are to be reckoned in tens, in hundreds, in thousands, or in millions, the total seems quite insignificant when compared with the weight of a body like the earth.

The small mass of comets is also brought before us in a very striking way when we recall what has been said in the last chapter on the important subject of the planetary perturbations. We have there treated of the permanence of our system, and we have shown that this permanence depends upon certain laws which the planetary motions must invariably fulfil. The planets move nearly in circles, their orbits are all nearly in the same plane, and they all move in the same direction. The permanence of the system would be imperilled if any one of these conditions was not fulfilled. In that discussion we made no allusion to the comets. Yet they are members of our system, and they far outnumber the planets. The comets repudiate these rules of the road which the planets so rigorously obey. Their orbits are never like circles; they are, indeed, more usually parabolic, and thus differ as widely as possible from the circular path. Nor do the planes of the orbits of comets affect any particular aspect; they are inclined at all sorts of angles, and the directions in which they move seem to be mere matters of caprice. All these articles of the planetary convention are violated by comets, but yet our system lasts; it has lasted for countless ages, and seems destined to last for ages to come. The comets are attracted by the planets, and conversely, the comets must attract the planets, and must perturb their orbits to some extent; but to what extent? If comets moved in orbits subject to the same general laws which characterise planetary motion, then our argument would break down. The planets might experience considerable derangements from cometary attraction, and yet in the lapse of time those disturbances would neutralise each other, and the permanence of the system would be unaffected. But the case is very different when we deal with the actual cometary orbits. If comets could appreciably disturb planets, those disturbances would not neutralise each other, and in the lapse of time the system would be wrecked by a continuous accumulation of irregularities. The facts, however, show that the system has lived, and is living, notwithstanding comets; and hence we are forced to the conclusion that their masses must be insignificant in comparison with those of the great planetary bodies.