Foreigners were now interested in learning about English life, philosophy, and opinion. They learned English to read English literature such as Shakespeare. No longer were France and Italy the only centers of culture and influence on other nations. By 1713, England was the leading sea power by far.
The Royal Society was still the principal focus of scientific activity. Issac Newton was its President for several years and drew in more foreigners. Its members were mathematicians, chemists, botanists, physicians, engineers, authors, poets, and theologians. Papers given there generated much discussion at its meetings. Newton opined that small particles attract each other by some force in a similar way that large bodies attracted each other. This force in immediate contact was exceedingly strong and performed chemical interactions, but at greater distances had no effect. Also there were local associations and societies. There were learned journals such as "Philosophical Transactions".
Drovers bought cattle in the countryside, drove them to big towns, and sold them to fattening graziers or fatted them themselves. Then they were driven into town and sold to the wholesale butcher, who sold the carcass to the retail butcher, the hides to the tanner, and the bones to the glue maker. Flocks of geese were also driven into towns, after their feet were given a protective covering of tar. There were also middlemen wholesalers for cheese, butter, cloth, and iron.
There was a rage of distemper among the cattle so serious that to prevent its spread, the king was authorized by Parliament to make regulations for prohibiting the removal or sale of cattle and for the burial of distempered cattle. Later, the king was authorized to prohibit the killing of cow calves. No one was to sell any ox, bull, cow, calf, steer, or heifer until he had possession of such for forty days or else forfeit ten pounds, Later, the king was authorized to regulate the movement of cattle from one place to another.
The main industry of the country was still agriculture. In the countryside, about half the arable land was under the open field system, in which land was cultivated in common. Enclosures of land were still taking place. The enclosures were now done by statutory commissions to ensure equitable allotments.
Agricultural improvements came first to enclosed land, which comprised about half of the agricultural land. In the 1733, Jethro Tull published a book about his 1701 invention of the seed-drill to first pulverize the soil for cultivation without manure and then to deposit seed at a uniform depth in regulated quantities and in rows instead of being thrown haphazardly. Also explained was the horse-hoe to stir the soil about the roots of the plants to preserve moisture, promote aeration, admit warmth, and destroy weeds. There were more horses than oxen in use now in the fields. -The horse-hoe was first used by large independent farmers on enclosed land. Also invented was a threshing machine with a set of sticks to replace hand threshing with flails. Under-drainage as well as irrigation was practiced. Lord Townshend alternated turnips, grasses, and grain in his fields, and thus provided winter food for his cattle. The two-field crop rotation with fallow periods was often displaced by the three-field system rotating grain crops, legumes, and fallowness. Independent farming gave rise to the improvement of breeds of livestock by selective breeding.
Enclosed land produced 26 bushels of grain compared to 18 bushels for common field land. It produced 9 pounds of sheep fleece compared to 3 1/2 pounds for common field land. Overall, soils were improved by being treated with clay, chalk, or lime. Artificial pasture was extended and there was increased use of clover, sainfoin, and rye-grass. Grain productivity was four times that of 1200. A fatted ox was 800 pounds compared to the former 400 pounds which it weighed from the 1300s to the 1600s. The fleece of sheep increased fourfold.
By statute of 1756, persons having rights of common in certain land may, by the major part in number and in value of each's tenement, enclose such land for planting and growth of timber or underwood.
Every village had a smith, carpenter, and miller. The larger villages also had a potter, a turner, a malster, a weaver, a tanner, and perhaps a mercer or grocer middleman. Wheelwrights made ploughs, harrows, carts, and wagons. Ploughs had one, two, or no wheels. Poor farming families took up extra work in the villages such as making gloves, knitting stockings, or spinning yarn. Craftsmen still helped farmers at harvest time.
Much of the rural population was now dispersed over the countryside instead of being concentrated in villages because so many small holders had sold out due to enclosures of farm land, especially of common land and waste land. The rural working class lived in two room cottages, with low ceilings, small windows, and an earth floor. Patience was required for those willing to wait for an existing cottage in a village to be vacated. Most laborers did not marry unless and until they found a cottage. Ancient custom that a person could build a home for himself on waste land if he did it in one night was ceasing to be respected. Farmers usually preferred employing day-laborers than keeping servants. There were many migrant workers, mainly from Ireland, for the busy summer haymaking and harvesting.