([A.])—Socrates, the greatest, the wisest, and the best of the ancient philosophers, was born at Alopece, a village near Athens, in the 4th year of 77th Olympiad. His distinguishing character was that of a moral philosopher; and his doctrine concerning God and religion was rather practical than speculative. But he did not neglect to build the structure of religious faith upon the firm foundation of an appeal to natural appearances. He taught that the Supreme Being, though invisible, is clearly seen in his works; which at once demonstrate his existence and his wise and benevolent providence. He admitted, besides the one Supreme Deity, the existence of beings who possessed a middle station between God and man, to whose agency he ascribed the ordinary phenomena of nature, and whom he supposed to be particularly concerned about human affairs. Hence he declared it to be the duty of every one, in the performance of religious rites, to follow the customs of his country. At the same time he taught that the merit of all religious offerings depends upon the character of the worshiper and that the gods take pleasure in the sacrifices of none but the truly pious. Concerning the human soul, the opinion of Socrates, according to Xenophon, was that it is allied to the Divine Being, not by a participation of essence, but by a similarity of nature; that man excels all other animals in the faculty of reason; and that the existence of good men will be continued after death in a state in which they will receive the reward of their virtue. Although it appears that on this latter topic he was not wholly free whom uncertainty, the consolation which he professed to derive from this source in the immediate prospect of death, leaves little room to doubt that he entertained a real expectation of immortality: and there is reason to believe that he was the only philosopher of ancient Greece, whose principles admitted of such an expectation.
His death, by the hands of the common executioner, took place in the first year of the 96th Olympiad[Olympiad], and in the 70th year of his age. Just before he drank the fatal hemlock, he said to a friend, “Is it not strange, after all I have said to convince you that I am going to the society of the happy, that Crito still thinks that this body, which will soon be a lifeless corpse, is Socrates? Let him dispose of my body as he pleases, but let him not at its interment mourn over it as if it were Socrates!”
([B.])—Tertullian, a celebrated priest of Carthage, was the son of a centurion in the Militia, who served as a proconsul of Africa. He was educated in the Pagan religion; but being convinced of its errors, embraced christianity, and became a zealous defender of the faith. He married it is said after his baptism. Afterwards he entered into holy orders and went to Rome, where, during the persecution under the Emperor Severus, he published his “Apology for the Christians,” and in the beginning of the third century he embraced the sect of the Montanists, who maintained that the Holy Spirit made Montanus, their leader, his organ for delivering a more perfect form of discipline than what was delivered by the Apostles. the 96th Tertullian[Tertullian] lived to a very great age, and died about the year 216.
([C.])—Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, a celebrated Roman historian, and one of the greatest men in his time. He applied himself to the bar, in which he gained high reputation. Having married the daughter of Agricola, who was the Roman Consul, and Governor of Britain, the road to public honours was open to him under Vespasian and Titus, but during the sanguinary reign of Domitian, he and his friend Pliny retired from public affairs. The reign of Nerva restored those luminaries of literature to Rome, and Tacitus was engaged to pronounce the funeral oration of the venerable Virginius Rufus, the colleague of the Emperor in the consulship, and afterwards succeeded him as Consul in the year 97.—It is supposed he died in the end of the reign of Trajan. There have been five translations of his works into English.
([D.])—Herodotus an ancient Greek historian, born at Halicarnassus in Caria, about the year before Christ, 484. He travelled over Egypt, Greece, Italy, &c. and thus acquired the knowledge of the history and origin of many nations. He then began[began] to digest the materials he had collected, and composed that history which has preserved his name ever since. He wrote it in the Isle of Samos. Lucian informs us, that when Herodotus left Caria to go into Greece, he began to consider with himself what he should do to be for ever known and make the ages all to come his own. His history he presumed would easily procure him fame, and raise his name among the Grecians, in whose favour it was written, but then he saw that it would be tedious to go through all the cities of Greece, and recite it to the inhabitants of each city. He thought it best therefore, to take the opportunity of their assembling all together; and accordingly recited his work at the Olympic games, which rendered him more famous than those who had obtained the prizes. None were ignorant of his name, nor was there a single person in Greece who had not either seen him at the Olympic games, or heard those speak of him who had seen him there. There have been several editions of his works; two by Henry Stephens in 1570 and 1592; one by Gale at London, in 1679, and one by Gronovius at Leyden, in 1715.
([E.])—Justin Martyr, one of the earliest and most learned writers of the eastern church, was born at Neapolis. the ancient Sychem of Palestine. His father, Priscus, a Gentile Greek, brought him up in his own religion, and had him educated in all the Grecian learning. To complete his studies he travelled into Egypt, and followed the sect of Plato, with whose intellectual notions he was much pleased. But one day walking by the sea side, wrapt in contemplation, he was met by a grave old man of venerable aspect; who falling into discourse with him, turned the conversation by degrees from the excellence of Platonism to the superior perfection of Christianity; and reasoned so well, as to raise in him an ardent curiosity to enquire into the merits of that religion; in consequence of which enquiry, he was converted about A. D. 132. On his embracing Christianity[Christianity], he quitted neither the profession nor habit of a philosopher; but a persecution breaking out under Antoninus, he composed an Apology for the Christians; and afterwards presented another to Marcus Aurelius, in which he vindicated the innocence and holiness of the Christian religion against Crescens a Cynic philosopher, and other calumniators. He did honour to Christianity by his learning and the purity of his manners; and suffered martyrdom in 167.
([F.])—Polycarp, one of the most ancient fathers of the Christian church, was born towards the end of the reign of Nero, probably at Smyrna, where he was educated at the expence of Calista, a noble matron distinguished by her piety and charity. He was a disciple of St. John the Evangelist, and conversed with some of the other Apostles. Bucolus ordained him a deacon and catechist of his church, and upon his death he succeeded him in his bishopric, to which he is said to have been consecrated by St. John. Polycarp governed the church of Smyrna with apostolical purity till he suffered martyrdom in the 7th year of Marcus Aurelius. He was burnt at a stake on the 23d of April, A. D. 167, and many miraculous circumstances are said to have happened at his martyrdom, which Dr. Jortin gives full credit to, though some other great men treat them as fabulous, such as, that the flames divided and for some time formed an arch over his head without hurting him &c. He wrote some homilies and epistles, which are now lost, except that to the Phillippians, which contains short precepts and rules of life. St. Jerome informs us that in his time it was read in the public assemblies of the Asiatic churches.
([G.])—Cyprian, a principal father of the Christian church, born at Carthage, about the end of the second or beginning of the third century. His parents were Heathens, and he himself continued such till the last twelve years of his life. He applied himself early to the study of oratory, and some of the ancients, particularly Lactantius, inform us that he taught rhetoric at Carthage with considerable applause. Cyprian’s conversion is fixed by Pearson to the year 246. He was at Carthage, where he had often employed his rhetoric in the defence of Paganism. It was brought about by one Cecilius, a priest of the church of Carthage, whose name Cyprian afterwards took; and between whom there ever after subsisted so close a friendship, that Cecilius at his death committed to Cyprian the care of his family. Cyprian was himself also a married man. As a proof of the sincerity of his conversion, he wrote in defence of Christianity, and composed his piece De Gratia Dei, which he addressed to Donatus. He next composed a piece De Idolorum Vanitate, upon the vanity of idols. Cyprian’s behaviour, both before and after his baptism, was so highly pleasing to the bishop of Carthage, that he ordained him a priest a few months after, though it was rather irregular to ordain a man thus in his very noviciate. But Cyprian was so extraordinary a person, and thought capable of doing such singular service to the church, that the usual period of probation was dispensed with. He consigned over all his goods to the poor, and gave himself up intirely to divine things. When, therefore, the bishop of Carthage died the year after, viz. A. D. 248, none was judged so proper to succeed him as Cyprian. The repose which the Christians had enjoyed during the last 40 years had greatly corrupted their manners; and therefore Cyprian’s first care, after his advancement to the bishopric, was to remove abuses. Luxury was prevalent among them; and many of their women were not strict in the article of dress. This led him to draw up his piece De Habitu Virginum, concerning the dress of young women, in which, besides what he says on that particular, he inculcates many lessons of modesty and sobriety. In 249, Decius issued very severe edicts against the Christians; and in 250, the Heathens in the circus and amphitheatre of Carthage, insisted upon Cyprian being thrown to the lions. Cyprian upon this withdrew from Carthage to avoid the fury of his persecutors. He wrote in the place of his retreat, pious and instructive letters to those who had been his hearers; and also to those pusillanimous Christians who procured certificates of the heathen magistrates, to shew that they had complied with the emperor’s orders in sacrificing to idols. At his return to Carthage he held several councils, on the repentance of those who had fallen off during the persecution, and other points of discipline; he opposed the schemes of Novatus and Novatianus; and contended for the re-baptizing of those who had been baptized by heretics. At last he died a Martyr in the persecution under Valerian and Gallienus, in 258. His works have been translated into English by Dr. Marshall.
([H.])—Hottinger, John Henry, a native of Zurich[Zurich], in Switzerland. He was born in 1620, professed the oriental languages and was greatly esteemed. He was drowned, with part of his family, in the river Lemit, in 1667.
([I.])—Ireneus, bishop of Lyons, was born in Greece about A. D. 120. He was a disciple of Polycarp, by whom, it is said, he was sent into Gaul in 157. He stopped at Lyons, where he performed the office of a priest; and in 178 was sent to Rome, where he disputed with Valentinus, and his two disciples Florinus and Blastus. At his return to Lyons, he succeeded Photinus, bishop of that city; and suffered martyrdom in 202 under Severus. He wrote many works in Greek, of which there remains only a barbarous Latin version of his five books against heretics, some Greek fragments in different authors, and Pope Victor’s letter mentioned by Eusebius. The best editions of his works are those of Erasmus in 1526; of Grabe in 1702, and of Massuet, in 1710.