During these transactions, a new controversy, of a very extraordinary and important nature, arose in the church, which, as the other had done before, occasioned many disorders and murders, and gave birth to the third general council. Nestorius,[[185]] the persecuting bishop of Constantinople, although tolerably sound in the doctrine of the real deity of the Logos, yet excepted against the Virgin Mary’s being called “mother of God,” because, as he argued, “Mary was a woman, and that, therefore, God could not be born of her;” adding, “I cannot call him God, who once was not above two or three months old;” and, therefore, he substituted another word in the room of it, calling her “mother of Christ.” By this means he seemed to maintain not only the distinction of the two natures of Christ, for he allowed the proper personality and subsistence of the Logos, but that there were also two distinct persons in Christ; the one a mere man, absolutely distinct from the word, and the other God, as absolutely distinct from the human nature. This caused great disturbances in the city of Constantinople, and the dispute was thought of such consequence, as to need a council to settle it. Accordingly, Theodosius convened one at Ephesus,[[186]] A. C. 431. of which Cyrill was president; and as he hated Nestorius, he persuaded the bishops of his own party to decree, that the Virgin was, and should be, the mother of God, and to anathematize all who should not confess her in this character, nor own that the word of God the Father was united substantially to the flesh, making one Christ of two natures, both God and man together; or who should ascribe what the scriptures say of Christ to two persons or subsistences, interpreting some of the man, exclusive of the word; and others of the word, exclusive of the human nature; or who should presume to call the man Christ, “the bearer, or the receptacle of God,” instead of God; and hastily to depose Nestorius five days before the coming of John, bishop of Antioch, with his suffragan bishops. John, upon his arrival at Ephesus, deposed Cyrill, in a council of bishops held for that purpose, and accused him of being the author of all the disorders occasioned by this affair, and of having rashly proceeded to the desposition of Nestorius. Cyrill was soon absolved by his own council, and, in revenge, deposed John of Antioch, and all the bishops of his party. But they were both reconciled by the emperor, and restored each other to their respective sees, and, as the effect of their reconciliation, both subscribed to the condemnation of Nestorius, who was sent into banishment, where, after suffering great hardships, he died miserably; being thus made to taste those sweets of persecution he had so liberally given to others, in the time of his power and prosperity. The emperor himself,[[187]] though at first he disapproved of this council’s conduct, yet afterwards was persuaded to ratify their decrees, and published a law, by which all who embraced the opinions of Nestorius, were, if bishops or clergymen, ordered to be expelled the churches; or, if laymen, to be anathematized. This occasioned irreconcilable hatreds amongst the bishops and people,[[188]] who were so enraged against each other, that there was no passing with any safety from one province or city to another, because every one pursued his neighbour as his enemy, and, without any fear of God, revenged themselves on one another, under a pretence of ecclesiastical zeal.
SECT. VI
The council of Chalcedon; or fourth general council.
Marcian,[[189]] the successor of Theodosius in the empire, embraced the orthodox party and opinions, and was very desirous to bring about an entire uniformity in the worship of God, and to establish the same form of doxologies amongst all Christians whatsoever.[[190]] Agreeably to this his temper, Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, addressed him soon after his promotion, in these words: “God hath justly given you the empire, that you should govern all for the universal welfare, and for the peace of his holy church: and, therefore, before and in all things, take care of the principles of the orthodox and most holy faith, and extinguish the roarings of the heretics, and bring to light the doctrines of piety.” The legates also of Leo, bishop of Rome, presented him their accusations against Dioscorus, bishop of Alexandria; as did also Eusebius, bishop of Dorylæum, beseeching the emperor that these things might be judged and determined by a synod. Marcian consented, and ordered the bishops to meet first at Nice, and afterwards at Chalcedon, 451. This was the fourth oecumenical or general council, consisting of near six hundred prelates. The principal cause of their assembling was the Eutychian heresy. Eutyches, a presbyter of Constantinople, had asserted, in the reign of Theodosius, jun.[[191]] that “Jesus Christ consisted of two natures before his union or incarnation, but that after this he had one nature only.” He also denied that “the body of Christ was of the same substance with ours.” On this account, he was deposed in a particular council at Constantinople, by Flavian, bishop of that place; but, upon his complaining to the emperor that the acts of that council were falsified by his enemies, a second synod of the neighbouring bishops met in the same city, who, after examining those acts, found them to be genuine, and confirmed the sentence against Eutyches. But Dioscorus, bishop of Alexandria, who was at enmity with Flavian of Constantinople, obtained, from Theodosius, that a third council should be held on this affair; which accordingly met at Ephesus, which the orthodox stigmatized by the name of the thieving council, or Council of Thieves. Dioscorus was president of it, and, after an examination of the affair of Eutyches, his sentence of excommunication and deposition was taken off, and himself restored to his office and dignity; the bishops of Constantinople, Antioch, and others, being deposed in his stead. But the condemned bishops, and the legates from Rome, appealed from this sentence to another council, and prevailed with Theodosius to issue his letters for the assembling one: but as he died before they could meet,[[192]] the honour of determining this affair was reserved for his successor, Marcian; and when the fathers, in obedience to his summons, were convened at Chalcedon, the emperor favoured them with his presence; and, in a speech to them, told them, “that he had nothing more at heart than to preserve the true and orthodox Christian faith, safe and uncorrupted, and that, therefore, he proposed to them a law, that no one should dare to dispute of the person of Christ, otherwise than as it had been determined by the council of Nice.” After this address of the emperor, the fathers proceeded to their synodical business, and, notwithstanding the synod was divided, some of the fathers piously crying out, “Damn Dioscorus, banish Dioscorus, banish the Egyptian, banish the heretic, Christ hath deposed Dioscorus;” others, on the contrary, “Restore Dioscorus to the council, restore Dioscorus to his churches;” yet, through the authority of the legates of Rome, Dioscorus was deposed for his contempt of the sacred canons, and for his contumacy towards the holy universal synod. After this, they proceeded to settle the faith according to the Nicene creed, the opinions of the fathers, and the doctrine of Athanasius, Cyrill, Cælestine, Hilarius, Basil, Gregory, and Leo; and decreed, that “Christ was truly God, and truly man, consubstantial to the Father as to his deity, and consubstantial to us as to his humanity; and that he was to be confessed as consisting of two natures without mixture, conversion of one into the other, and without division or separation; and that it should not be lawful for any person to utter, or write, or compose, or think, or teach any other faith whatsoever;” and that if any should presume to do it, they should, if bishops or clergymen, be deposed; and if monks or laicks, be anathematized. This procured a loud acclamation: “God bless the emperor, God bless the empress. We believe as pope Leo doth. Damn the dividers and the confounders. We believe as Cyrill did: immortal be the name of Cyrill. Thus the orthodox believe; and cursed be every one that doth not believe so too.” Marcian ratified their decrees,[[193]] and banished Dioscorus, and put forth an edict, containing very severe penalties against the Eutychians and Apollinarists. By this law the emperor ordained, “that they should not have power of disposing their estates, and making a will, nor of inheriting what others should leave them by will. Neither let them receive advantage by any deed of gift, but let whatsoever is given them, either by the bounty of the living, or the will of the dead, be immediately forfeited to our treasury; nor let them have the power, by any title or deed of gift, to transfer any part of their own estates to others. Neither shall it be lawful for them to have or ordain bishops or presbyters, or any other of the clergy whatsoever; as knowing that the Eutychians and Apollinarists, who shall presume to confer the names of bishop or presbyter, or any other sacred office upon any one, as well as those who shall dare to retain them, shall be condemned to banishment, and the forfeiture of their goods. And as to those who have been formerly ministers in the Catholic church, or monks of the orthodox faith, and forsaking the true and orthodox worship of the Almighty God, have or shall embrace the heresies and abominable opinions of Apollinarius or Eutyches, let them be subject to all the penalties ordained by this, or any foregoing laws whatsoever, against heretics, and banished from the Roman dominions, according as former laws have decreed against the Manicheans. Farther, let not any of the Apollinarists, or Eutychians, build churches or monasteries, or have assemblies and conventicles either by day or night; nor let the followers of this accursed sect meet in any one’s house or tenement, or in a monastery, nor in any other place whatsoever: but if they do, and it shall appear to be with the consent of the owners of such places, after a due examination, let such place or tenement in which they meet be immediately forfeited to us; or if it be a monastery, let it be given to the orthodox church of that city in whose territory it is. But if so be they hold these unlawful assemblies and conventicles without the knowledge of the owner, but with the privity of him who receives the rents of it, the tenant, agent, or steward of the estate, let such tenant, agent, or steward, or whoever shall receive them into any house or tenement, or monastery, and suffer them to hold such unlawful assemblies and conventicles, if he be of low and mean condition, be publicly bastinadoed as a punishment to himself, and as a warning to others; but if they are persons of repute, let them forfeit ten pounds of gold to our treasury. Farther, let no Apollinarist or Eutychian ever hope for any military preferment, except to be listed in the foot soldiers, or garrisons: but if any of them shall be found in any other military service, let them be immediately broke, and forbid all access to the palace, and not suffered to dwell in any other city, town or country, but that wherein they were born.”
“But if any of them are born in this august city, let them be banished from this most sacred society, and from every metropolitan city of our provinces. Farther, let no Apollinarist or Eutychian have the power of calling assemblies, public or private, or gathering together any companies, or disputing in any heretical manner; or of defending their perverse and wicked opinions; nor let it be lawful for any one to speak or write, or publish any thing of their own, or the writings of any others, contrary to the decrees of the venerable synod of Chalcedon. Let no one have any such books, nor dare to keep any of the impious performances of such writers. And if any are found guilty of these crimes, let them be condemned to perpetual banishment; and, as for those, who through a desire of learning shall hear others disputing of this wretched heresy, it is our pleasure that they forfeit ten pounds of gold to our treasury, and let the teacher of these unlawful tenets be punished with death. Let all such books and papers as contain any of the damnable opinions of Eutyches or Apollinarius be burnt, that all the remains of their impious perverseness may perish with the flames; for it is but just that there should be a proportionable punishment to deter men from these most outrageous impieties. And let all the governors of our provinces, and their deputies, and the magistrates of our cities, know, that if, through neglect or presumption, they shall suffer any part of this most religious edict to be violated, they shall be condemned to a fine of ten pounds of gold, to be paid into our treasury; and shall incur the farther penalty of being declared infamous.” For this law, pope Leo returns him thanks,[[194]] and exhorts him farther, that he would reform the see of Alexandria, and not only depose the heretical clergy of Constantinople from their clerical orders, but expel them from the city itself.
At the same time that they published these cruel laws, the authors of them, as Mr. Limborch[[195]] well observes, would willingly be thought to offer no violence to conscience. Marcian himself, in a letter to the Archimandrites of Jerusalem, says, Such is our clemency, that we use no force with any, to compel him to subscribe, or agree with us, if he be unwilling; for we would not by terrors and violence drive men into the paths of truth. Who would not wonder at this hypocrisy, and at such attempts to cover over their cruelties? They forbid men to learn or teach, under the severest penalties, doctrines which they who teach them are fully persuaded of the truth of, and think themselves obliged to propagate; and yet the author of such penalties would fain be thought to offer no violence to conscience. But for what end are all these penalties against heretics ordained? For no other, unquestionably, but that men may be deterred, by the fear of them, from openly professing themselves, or teaching others, principles they think themselves bound in conscience to believe and teach; that being at length quite tired out by these hardships, they may join themselves to the established churches, and at least profess to believe their opinions. But this is offering violence to conscience, and persecution in the highest degree. But to proceed:
Proterius[[196]] was substituted by this council bishop of Alexandria, in the room of Dioscorus; and upon his taking possession of his bishopric, the whole city was put into the utmost confusion, being divided, some for Dioscorus, some for Proterius. The mob assaulted with great violence their magistrates,[[197]] and being opposed by the soldiers, they put them to flight by a shower of stones; and as they betook themselves to one of the churches for sanctuary, the mob besieged it, and burnt it to the ground, with the soldiers in it. The emperor sent two thousand other soldiers to quell this disturbance, who increased the miseries of the poor citizens, by offering the highest indignities to their wives and daughters. And though they were for some time kept in awe,[[198]] yet, upon Marcian’s death, they broke out into greater fury, ordained Timotheus bishop of the city, and murdered Proterius, by running him through with a sword. After this, they hung him by a rope, in a public place, by way of derision, and then, after they had ignominiously drawn him round the whole city, they burnt him to ashes, and even fed on his very bowels in the fury of their revenge. The orthodox charged these outrages upon the Eutychians; but Zacharias, the historian, mentioned by Evagrius, says, Proterius himself was the cause of them, and that he raised the greatest disturbances in the city: and, indeed, the clergy of Alexandria, in their letter to Leo, the emperor, concerning this affair, acknowledge, that Proterius had deposed Timotheus, with four or five bishops, and several monks, for heresy, and obtained of the emperor their actual banishment. Great disturbances happened also in Palestine[[199]] on the same account; the monks who opposed the council forcing Juvenal, bishop of Jerusalem, to quit his see, and getting one Theodosius ordained in his room. But the emperor soon restored Juvenal, after whose arrival the tumults and miseries of the city greatly increased, the different parties acting by one another just as their fury and revenge inspired them.
Leo succeeded Marcian,[[200]] and sent circular letters to the several bishops, to make inquiries concerning the affairs of Alexandria, and the council of Chalcedon. Most of the bishops adhered to the decrees of those fathers, and agreed to depose Timotheus, who was sent to bear Dioscorus company in banishment.
Under Zeno, the son-in-law and successor of Leo, Hunnerick the Vandal grievously persecuted the orthodox in Africa. In the beginning of his reign he made a very equitable proposal, that he would allow them the liberty of choosing a bishop, and worshipping according to their own way, provided the emperor would grant the Arians the same liberty in Constantinople, and other places. This the orthodox would not agree to, choosing rather to have their own brethren persecuted, than to allow toleration to such as differed from them. Hunnerick was greatly enraged by this refusal, and exercised great severity towards all who would not profess the Arian faith, being excited hereto by Cyrill, one of his bishops, who was perpetually suggesting to him, that the peace and safety of his kingdom could not be maintained, unless he extirpated all who differed from him as public nuisances. This cruel ecclesiastical advice was agreeable to the king’s temper, who immediately put forth the most severe edicts against those who held the doctrine of the consubstantiality, and turned all those laws which had been made against the Arians, and other heretics, against the orthodox themselves; it being, as Hunnerick observes in his edict, “an instance of virtue in a king, to turn evil counsels against those who were the authors of them.” But though the persecution carried on by the orthodox was no vindication of Hunnerick’s cruelty towards them, yet I think they ought to have observed the justice of divine Providence, in suffering a wicked prince to turn all those unrighteous laws upon themselves, which, when they had power on their side, they had procured for the punishment and destruction of others. A particular account of the cruelties exercised by this prince may be read at large in Victor de Vandal. Persec. l. 3.
Zeno, though perfectly orthodox in his principles, yet was a very wicked and profligate prince, and rendered himself so extremely hateful to his own family, by his vices and debaucheries, that Basiliscus, brother of Verina, mother of Zeno’s empress, expelled him the empire, and reigned in his stead;[[201]] and having found by experience, that the decrees of the council of Chalcedon had occasioned many disturbances, he by an edict ordained, that the Nicene creed alone should be used in all churches, as being the only rule of the pure faith, and sufficient to remove every heresy, and perfectly to unite all the churches; confirming at the same time the decrees of the councils of Constantinople and Ephesus. But as to those of the council of Chalcedon, he ordered, that as they had destroyed the unity and good order of the churches, and the peace of the whole world, they should be anathematized by all the bishops; and that wherever any copies of those articles should be found they should be immediately burnt. And that whosoever after this should attempt, either by dispute or writing, or teaching, at any time, manner or place, to utter, or so much as name the novelties that had been agreed on at Chalcedon contrary to the faith, should, as the authors of tumults and seditions in the churches of God, and as enemies to God and himself, be subject to all the penalties of the laws, and be deposed, if bishops or clergymen; and if monks or laicks, be punished with banishment, and confiscation of their effects, and even with death itself.[[202]] Most of the eastern bishops subscribed these letters of Basiliscus; and being afterwards met in council at Ephesus, they deposed Acacius, the orthodox bishop of Constantinople, and many other bishops that agreed with him. They also wrote to the emperor to inform him, that “they had voluntarily subscribed his letters,” and to persuade him to adhere to them, or that otherwise “the whole world would be subverted, if the decrees of the synod of Chalcedon should be re-established, which had already produced innumerable slaughters, and occasioned the shedding of the blood of the orthodox Christians.” But Acacius, bishop of Constantinople, soon forced Basiliscus to alter his measures, by raising up the monks and mob of the city against him; so that he recalled his former letters, and ordered Nestorius and Eutyches, with all their followers, to be anathematized, and soon after he quitted the empire to Zeno.[[203]] Upon his restoration he immediately rescinded the acts of Basiliscus, and expelled those bishops from their sees, which had been ordained during his abdication. In the mean time the Asiatic bishops, who in their letter to Basiliscus had declared, that the report of their “subscribing involuntarily, and by force, was a slander and a lie;” yet, upon this turn of affairs, in order to excuse themselves to Acacius, and to ingratiate themselves with Zeno, affirm, “that they did it not voluntarily, but by force, swearing that they had always, and did now believe the faith of the synod of Chalcedon.” Evagrius leaves it in doubt, whether Zacharias defamed them, or whether the bishops lied, when they affirmed that they subscribed involuntarily, and against their consciences.