The appendix contains a copy of the working plan followed by the U.S. Forest Service in the extensive investigations covering the mechanical properties of the woods grown in the United States. It contains many valuable suggestions for the independent investigator. In addition four tables of strength values for structural timbers, both green and air-seasoned, are included. The relation of the stresses developed in different structural forms to those developed in the small clear specimens is given.
In the bibliography attempt was made to list all of the important publications and articles on the mechanical properties of wood, and timber testing. While admittedly incomplete, it should prove of assistance to the student who desires a fuller knowledge of the subject than is presented here.
The writer is indebted to the U.S. Forest Service for nearly all of his tables and photographs as well as many of the data upon which the book is based, since only the Government is able to conduct the extensive investigations essential to a thorough understanding of the subject. More than eighty thousand tests have been made at the Madison laboratory alone, and the work is far from completion.
The writer also acknowledges his indebtedness to Mr. Emanuel Fritz, M.E., M.F., for many helpful suggestions in the preparation of Part I; and especially to Mr. Harry Donald Tiemann, M.E., M.F., engineer in charge of Timber Physics at the Government Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin, for careful revision of the entire manuscript.
SAMUEL J. RECORD.
YALE FOREST SCHOOL, July 1, 1914.
CONTENTS
- [PREFACE]
- [PART I
THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD] - [Introduction]
- [Fundamental considerations and definitions]
- [Tensile strength]
- [Compressive or crushing strength]
- [Shearing strength]
- [Transverse or bending strength: Beams]
- [Toughness: Torsion]
- [Hardness]
- [Cleavability]
- [PART II
FACTORS AFFECTING THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD] - [Introduction]
- [Rate of growth]
- [Heartwood and sapwood]
- [Weight, density, and specific gravity]
- [Color]
- [Cross grain]
- [Knots]
- [Frost splits]
- [Shakes, galls, pitch pockets]
- [Insect injuries]
- [Marine wood-borer injuries]
- [Fungous injuries]
- [Parasitic plant injuries]
- [Locality of growth]
- [Season of cutting]
- [Water content]
- [Temperature]
- [Preservatives]
- [PART III
TIMBER TESTING] - [Working plan]
- [Forms of material tested]
- [Size of test specimens]
- [Moisture determination]
- [Machine for static tests]
- [Speed of testing machine]
- [Bending large beams]
- [Bending small beams]
- [Endwise compression]
- [Compression across the grain]
- [Shear along the grain]
- [Impact test]
- [Hardness test: Abrasion and indentation]
- [Cleavage test]
- [Tension test parallel to the grain]
- [Tension test at right angles to the grain]
- [Torsion test]
- [Special tests]
- [Spike pulling test]
- [Packing boxes]
- [Vehicle and implement woods]
- [Cross-arms]
- [Other tests]
- [APPENDIX]
- [Sample working plan of United States Forest Service]
- [Strength values for structural timbers]
- [BIBLIOGRAPHY]
- [Part I: Some general works on mechanics, materials of construction, and testing of materials]
- [Part II: Publications and articles on the mechanical properties of wood, and timber testing]
- [Part III: Publications of the United States Government on the mechanical properties of wood, and timber testing]
- ILLUSTRATIONS
- [ Frontispiece. Photomicrograph of a small block of western hemlock ]
- [1. Stress-strain diagrams of two longleaf pine beams ]
- [2. Compression across the grain ]
- [3. Side view of failures in compression across the grain ]
- [4. End view of failures in compression across the grain ]
- [5. Testing a buggy-spoke in endwise compression ]
- [6. Unequal distribution of stress in a long column due to lateral bending ]
- [7. Endwise compression of a short column ]
- [8. Failures of a short column of green spruce ]
- [9. Failures of short columns of dry chestnut ]
- [10. Example of shear along the grain ]
- [11. Failures of test specimens in shear along the grain ]
- [12. Horizontal shear in a beam ]
- [13. Oblique shear in a short column ]
- [14. Failure of a short column by oblique shear ]
- [15. Diagram of a simple beam ]
- [16. Three common forms of beams—(1) simple, (2) cantilever, (3) continuous ]
- [17. Characteristic failures of simple beams ]
- [18. Failure of a large beam by horizontal shear ]
- [19. Torsion of a shaft ]
- [20. Effect of torsion on different grades of hickory ]
- [21. Cleavage of highly elastic wood ]
- [22. Cross-sections of white ash, red gum, and eastern hemlock ]
- [23. Cross-section of longleaf pine ]
- [24. Relation of the moisture content to the various strength values of spruce ]
- [25. Cross-section of the wood of western larch showing fissures in the thick-walled cells of the late wood ]
- [26. Progress of drying throughout the length of a chestnut beam ]
- [27. Excessive season checking ]
- [28. Control of season checking by the use of S-irons ]
- [29. Static bending test on a large beam ]
- [30. Two methods of loading a beam ]
- [31. Static bending test on a small beam ]
- [32. Sample log sheet, giving full details of a transverse bending test on a small pine beam ]
- [33. Endwise compression test ]
- [34. Sample log sheet of an endwise compression test on a short pine column ]
- [35. Compression across the grain ]
- [36. Vertical section of shearing tool ]
- [37. Front view of shearing tool ]
- [38. Two forms of shear test specimens ]
- [39. Making a shearing test ]
- [40. Impact testing machine ]
- [41. Drum record of impact bending test ]
- [42. Abrasion machine for testing the wearing qualities of woods ]
- [43. Design of tool for testing the hardness of woods by indentation ]
- [44. Design of tool for cleavage test ]
- [45. Design of cleavage test specimen ]
- [46. Designs of tension test specimens used in United States ]
- [47. Design of tension test specimen used in New South Wales ]
- [48. Design of tool and specimen for testing tension at right angles to the grain ]
- [49. Making a torsion test on hickory ]
- [50. Method of cutting and marking test specimens ]
- [51. Diagram of specific gravity apparatus ]
- TABLES
- [I. Comparative strength of iron, steel, and wood]
- [II. Ratio of strength of wood in tension and in compression]
- [III. Right-angled tensile strength of small clear pieces of 25 woods in green condition]
- [IV. Results of compression tests across the grain on 51 woods in green condition, and comparison with white oak]
- [V. Relation of fibre stress at elastic limit in bending to the crushing strength of blocks cut therefrom in pounds per square inch]
- [VI. Results of endwise compression tests on small clear pieces of 40 woods in green condition]
- [VII. Shearing strength along the grain of small clear pieces of 41 woods in green condition]
- [VIII. Shearing strength across the grain of various American woods]
- [IX. Results of static bending tests on small clear beams of 49 woods in green condition]
- [X. Results of impact bending tests on small clear beams of 34 woods in green condition]
- [XI. Manner of first failure of large beams]
- [XII. Hardness of 32 woods in green condition, as indicated by the load required to imbed a 0.444-inch steel ball to one-half its diameter]
- [XIII. Cleavage strength of small clear pieces of 32 woods in green condition]
- [XIV. Specific gravity, and shrinkage of 51 American woods]
- [XV. Effect of drying on the mechanical properties of wood, shown in ratio of increase due to reducing moisture content from the green condition to kiln-dry]
- [XVI. Effect of steaming on the strength of green loblolly pine]
- [XVII. Speed-strength moduli, and relative increase in strength at rates of fibre strain increasing in geometric ratio]
- [XVIII. Results of bending tests on green structural timbers]
- [XIX. Results of compression and shear tests on green structural timbers]
- [XX. Results of bending tests on air-seasoned structural timbers]
- [XXI. Results of compression and shear tests on air-seasoned structural timbers]
- [XXII. Working unit stresses for structural timber expressed in pounds per square inch]
- [INDEX]
- [FOOTNOTES]