A Moslem seeker after God

by Samuel Marinus Zwemer

We have interesting evidence of Al-Ghazali’s position as a writer even in his own day in the precious relic shown in our illustration. In the Arabic Museum at Cairo there is a maqlama or pen-case which once belonged to Al-Ghazali. It was presented to the Museum by M. Kyticas and is made of brass overlaid with silver. It bears the following inscription: “Made for the library of our Master, the most great and noble Imam, our revered Leader, the Mouthpiece of verity, the greatest Scholar of the world, the King of wise men, the Stay of all living, the Treasury of truth, the most illustrious among his contemporaries, the Restorer of religion, [an illegible word] Hujjat ul-Islam, Mohammed Al-Ghazali.”

Pen case of Al Ghazali, made of brass inlaid with silver, preserved in the Arab Museum, Cairo.

This bronze is the oldest piece of damascened metal work and the only example of that epoch with naskhi inscription in the possession of the Museum. That the case was not made at a later period and presented to Al-Ghazali’s library after his death is evident from the fact that it was the custom to present a book or celestial globe to a library, but not a pen-case or even an inkstand. Then, too, the word “al-marhum,” meaning “deceased,” does not appear on it as it does on other objects which were offered in memory of a deceased person. An objection to the authenticity of the bronze is the use of silver in a pen-case designed to be used by a Sufi doctor pledged in some measure to an ascetic life. But this objection may be answered by stating that the case was not made to the order of Al-Ghazali personally, but by his disciples in order to obtain his good-will and patronage.[58]

We need not, moreover, be surprised at the apparent lack of modesty which the inscription on the pen-case indicates. Judging from other instances of this period, Al-Ghazali himself might well have written the inscription.

An almost complete list of Al-Ghazali’s writings as well as of the translations of his works into other languages, especially Hebrew, Latin, French, German, and English, is given in the appendix.[59] Before we speak of some of his more important works a summary will interest the reader. The Jawahir al-Koran (Jewels of the Koran) contains observations on some of the verses of the Koran which have special value; the ʾAqida is a statement of the articles of the Moslem faith, and was published by Pococke in his Specimen; the Precious Pearl (Al-Durrat Al-Fakhira) is a treatise on the last judgment and the end of the world, i. e., his eschatology—and has been translated and published by L. Gautier. The morality and theology of the mystics are codified in the Ihya ʿulum id-din (Revivification of the Religious Sciences). The Mizan Al-ʿamal (The Balance of Works) has been translated into Hebrew by Ibrahim bin Hasdai of Barcelona, and published by Goldenthal. The Kimiya as-saʾada (Alchemy of Happiness) is a popular lecture founded on mysticism; this work which was originally written in Persian, has been twice translated into English, by H. A. Homes in 1873 and more recently by Claud Field. Ayyuha ’l-walad (O Child!) is a celebrated moral treatise, which has been translated into German and published by Hammer-Purgstall. Among works on jurisprudence, his treatises on Shafiʾite law have earned great reputation in the Moslem world; his Basit, Wasit, and Wajiz are all abridgments of them. In the domain of philosophy, the Tahafut al-Falasifa (Collapse of the Philosophers) is an attack on the adherents of the Greek Philosophy; it has been edited by DeBoer. The Maqasid al-Falasifa (Aims of the Philosophers) is a sort of introduction to the above. The text has been published by G. Beer, and a Latin translation by Gondisalvi is in existence, which was printed in Venice in 1506. Al-Munqidh min ad-Dalal (The Deliverer from Error), written after the author commenced his life as a teacher at Nishapur for the second time, describes the development of his philosophy. It was translated and published by Schmolders in his “Essay on the Schools of Philosophy Among the Arabs”; a second and greatly improved translation was published in the Journal Asiatique for 1877, by the learned savant, Barbier de Meynard. More recently it appeared in English under the title “The Confessions of Al-Ghazali.” It is one of his shortest but most famous books and can be compared with the “Confessions” of St. Augustine, or John Bunyan’s “Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners.” Several of Al-Ghazali’s numerous works are very brief, in the shape of epistles or tractates.

Among his shorter works the following may be mentioned: Al-ʾAdab fi Din, a short treatise on the ethics of politeness, prepared for the use of his pupils. It speaks of the ideal pupil, the ideal teacher, of the ethics of eating, drinking, marriage and the religious life. A smaller work already mentioned is the Risala Ayyuh’ Al-Walad (“O Child!”). In it he defines faith and works and distinguishes between them. A curious passage occurs in the introduction which reflects on Al-Ghazali’s accuracy of statement, or at least raises the question as to which “Gospel” he refers to. He says: “O my child, live as you please for you are already dead; love whom you wish, for you are bound to be separated; and do what you will, for you are sure to be judged for it. Verily I saw in the Gospel of Jesus (upon Him be prayers and peace) that He said, ‘From the hour in which the dead is put upon the bier until the time when he rests on the edge of the grave God will ask him forty questions, the first of which is, O my servant, you have purified yourself to appear before men many years and not for one hour have you purified yourself for my gates, and every day a voice was sounded in your ears saying, “What you do for others why do you not do for me who surrounds you with my mercy!” but you were deaf and not willing to hear.’”

In his “Alchemy of Happiness” there is a beautiful chapter on “Know Thyself.” The parable there used regarding man’s soul and the enemies that lay siege against it reminds one very much of Bunyan’s “Holy War.” The shortest of his works, as far as I am aware, is called Al-Qawaʿid Al-ʾAshara (The Ten Articles); this has been frequently reprinted. It consists of ten principles of faith and conduct, and is scarcely longer than an ordinary letter. Of a similar character is Risalat-ut-Tair the parable of the birds. His most celebrated treatise on ethics and conduct is entitled Mizan ul ʿAmal. It might be compared to the book of Ecclesiastes or the first chapters of the book of Proverbs. In the introduction Al-Ghazali shows the folly of those who neglect to secure the happiness of their immortal souls as well as the peril of those who despise faith in the world to come. The true way of happiness consists in knowing the right and doing it. The soul is a unit and its various powers are knit together and are interdependent. The path of the mystic unites true faith with true practice. He also speaks of the possibility of change of character through religious devotion and mentions the virtues that are to be cultivated and the vices to be shunned on this pathway to God and to true happiness.

To emphasize the importance of life with its brevity and the supreme importance of eternity Al-Ghazali says: “Suppose we imagine that the whole world is filled with dust and that a little bird should come and snatch up one atom of dust every thousand years. We know that there would be an end of its task, but nothing would have been taken away from the everlasting character of that eternity which has no end.” Although the moral teaching of this book is very noble, it is after all based entirely on the principle of salvation by works. There is no hint of the possibility of the transformation of character through regeneration of the heart, nor is the way pointed to the victorious life by overcoming temptation through a power that is not our own.

Of all his writings none is celebrated more justly than his greatest work “The Revival of Religious Sciences” (Ihya ʿulum id Din). It is a veritable encyclopædia of Moslem teaching and ethics and covers the whole range of Moslem thought. Many editions of this work have been printed and commentaries written on it, the most celebrated of which is by Mohammed-uz-Zubeidi Al-Murtadha, in ten large volumes. The work itself consists of four volumes of ten books each and has a total of over one thousand closely printed pages. Although widely read in its original form, popular demand has called forth several abbreviated compendia of the work. One of them entitled “A Homily for Believers,” by Mohammed Jamal-ud-Din of Damascus, is used as a text-book on Islam in the Theological Seminary of the American Mission in Cairo.