The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648

by Samuel Rawson Gardiner

Not that the present book is a mere collection of other men's words. If I have often adopted without much change the narrative or opinions of German writers, I have never said any thing which I have not made my own, by passing it through my own mind. To reproduce with mere paste and scissors passages from the writings of men so opposed to one another as Ranke, Gindely, Ritter, Opel, Hurter, Droysen, Gfrörer, Klopp, Förster, Villermont, Uetterodt, Koch, and others, would be to bewilder, not to instruct. And in forming my own opinions I have had the advantage not merely of being in the habit of writing from original documents, but of having studied at least some of the letters and State papers of the time. I have thus, for example, been able, from my knowledge of the despatches of Sir Robert Anstruther, to neglect Droysen's elaborate argument that Christian IV. took part in the war through jealousy of Gustavus Adolphus; and to speak, in opposition to Onno Klopp, of the persistence of the Dukes of Mecklenburg in the support which they gave to the King of Denmark.

More valuable than the little additional knowledge thus obtained is the insight into the feelings and thoughts of the Catholic princes gained by a very slight acquaintance with their own correspondence. To start by trying to understand what a man appears to himself, and only when that has been done, to try him by the standard of the judgment of others, is in my opinion the first canon of historical portraiture; and it is one which till very recent times has been more neglected by writers on the Thirty Years' War than by students of any other portion of history.

My teachers in Germany from whom I have borrowed so freely, and according to the rules of the series, without acknowledgment in foot-notes, will, I hope, accept this little book, not as an attempt to do that which they are so much better qualified to execute, but as an expression of the sympathy which an Englishman cannot but feel for the misfortunes as well as the achievements of his kindred on the Continent, and as an effort to tell something of the by-gone fortunes of their race to those amongst his own countrymen to whom, from youth or from circumstances of education, German literature is a sealed book.

I have only to add that the dates are according to the New Style. Ten days must be deducted to bring them in accordance with those used at the time in England.

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[CONTENTS.]

Events in English History not noticed in the text, or only referred to, are printed in Italics.

[CHAPTER I.] CAUSES OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.
[Section I.]—Political Institutions of Germany (1440-1517).
		PAGE
	National institutions of Germany defective	[1]
	(a) As regarded the Emperor	[1]
	(b) As regarded the great vassals	[3]
	Attempts made to introduce order by giving a regularform to the Diet	[5]
	These, though only partially successful, are not altogetheruseless	[6]
	Constitution of the Diet	[6]
[Section II.]—Protestantism in Germany (1517-1570).
	Protestantism acceptable to the majority of the nation,but rejected by the Emperor and the Diet	[8]
	The result is a civil war, resulting in a compromise,called the Peace of Augsburg (1555). Its terms beingambiguous on some important points, give rise tocontroversy	[10]
	But as Protestantism is on the increase, the ambiguouspoints are, at first, construed by the Protestants intheir own favour	[11]
	The main points at issue relate to the right of Protestantsto hold bishoprics, and to the right of Protestantprinces to secularize church lands	[12]
[Section III.]—Reaction against Protestantism (1570-1596).
	Theological controversies are carried on with bitternessamongst the Protestants	[13]
	The Catholics, accordingly, begin to gain ground	[14]
	And having the Emperor and Diet on their side, areable to use force as well as persuasion	[14]
	Want of any popular representation prevents any fairsettlement of the dispute	[15]
[Section IV.]—Three Parties and Three Leaders (1596-1612).
	Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists are respectivelyguided by Maximilian Duke of Bavaria, John GeorgeElector of Saxony, and Christian of Anhalt	[15]
	Character and policy of Maximilian dangerous to theProtestants	[15]
	The Protestants of the south more alive to the dangerthan the Protestants of the north	[17]
	Spread of Calvinism, especially in the south, accountedfor by the greater danger from CatholicStates	[17]
	Character and policy of Christian of Anhalt	[18]
1603	Accession of James I. of England
1605	Gunpowder Plot
1607	Donauwörth occupied by Maximilian	[19]
1608	Formation of the Protestant Union and the CatholicLeague	[21]
1609	The quarrel for the succession of Cleves does not resultin open war	[21]
1612	John George fruitlessly attempts to mediate between theCatholics and the Calvinists	[22]
1613	Marriage of Frederick V., Elector Palatine, to Elizabeth,daughter of James I. of England
[CHAPTER II.] THE BOHEMIAN REVOLUTION.
[Section I.]—The House of Austria and its Subjects (1600-1618).
	Political and religious dissensions between the rulersand their subjects	[24]
1609	The Emperor Rudolph, as King of Bohemia, grants theRoyal Charter to Bohemia	[25]
1611	He is succeeded by Matthias in spite of the intrigues ofChristian of Anhalt	[26]
	Matthias evades the charter	[27]
1617	Ferdinand accepted by the Bohemian Diet as King byhereditary right	[28]
1618	The Protestant churches on ecclesiastical lands declaredillegal by the government of Matthias; one atBraunau shut up, one at Klostergrab pulled down	[29]
[Section II.]—The Revolution at Prague (March-May 1618).
Mar. 5.	Meeting of the Protestant Estates of Bohemia	[29]
May 23.	Attack headed by Thurn upon the Regents atPrague. Martinitz and Slawata thrown out of window.Beginning of the Thirty Years' War	[30]
	Appointment of Thirty Directors as a RevolutionaryGovernment in Bohemia	[31]
[Section III.]—The War in Bohemia (May 1618-February 1619).
Aug. 13.	Bohemia invaded by the Emperor's general, Bucquoi.
	The Bohemians look abroad for help. Mansfeldbrings troops to them. He besieges Pilsen, whilstThurn makes head against Bucquoi	[33]
Nov. 21.	Pilsen surrenders	[34]
	Christian of Anhalt urges Frederick V., Elector Palatine,to intervene on behalf of the Bohemians, andasks the Duke of Savoy to help them	[34]
1619 Feb.	The Duke of Savoy talks of dividing the Austrian dominionswith Frederick	[35]
[Section IV.]—Ferdinand on his Defence (March-November1619).
Mar. 20.	Death of Matthias	[36]
June 5.	Vienna besieged by Thurn. Ferdinand threatenedby a deputation from the Estates of Lower Austria	[36]
	He is delivered by a regiment of horse, and Thurnraises the siege	[37]
Aug. 28.	Ferdinand II. elected Emperor	[38]
Aug. 26.	Frederick, Elector Palatine, elected King of Bohemia,Ferdinand having been previously deposed	[38]
Nov. 4.	Frederick Crowned at Prague	[39]
[CHAPTER III.] IMPERIALIST VICTORIES IN BOHEMIA AND THE PALATINATE
[Section I.]—The Attack upon Frederick (November1619-January 1621).
1619	Maximilian of Bavaria prepares for war	[39]
	Vienna fruitlessly attacked by Bethlen Gabor	[40]
	Frederick finds no support in the Union	[41]
1620 Mar.	The North German Princes agree to neutrality atMühlhausen	[42]
June 3.	Spinola, the Spanish General, prepares to attack thePalatinate, and the Union, being frightened, signsthe treaty of Ulm, by which it agrees to observeneutrality towards the League	[42]
June 23.	Maximilian, with Tilly in command of his army,enters Austria and compels the Austrian Estates tosubmit, whilst Spinola reduces the Western Palatinate	[42]
	Maximilian joins Bucquoi, and enters Bohemia	[43]
Sep. 28.	Frederick, having failed to organize resistance, joinsthe Bohemian army	[44]
Nov. 8.	Defeat of Frederick at the Battle of the White Hill,1619 and submission of Bohemia to the Emperor	[45]
Jan. 22.	Frederick put to the Ban of the Empire	[46]
[Section II.]—The War in the Upper Palatinate (January-October1621).
1621 Jan.	Frederick does not abandon hope of regaining Bohemia	[47]
Ap. 12.	The Treaty of Mentz dissolves the Union	[47]
	Bad character of Mansfeld's Army	[48]
May.	Mansfeld takes the offensive	[49]
Aug.	Recommencement of the War in the Lower Palatinate	[50]
Oct.	Mansfeld unable to hold out in the Upper Palatinate	[50]
Oct. 10.	Signs an engagement to disband his forces, but escapeswith them to Alsace	[50]
[Section III.]—Frederick's Allies (October 1621-May 1622).
1621	James I. of England proposes to take Mansfeld intohis pay, but he cannot agree with the House ofCommons, and is therefore in want of money	[50]
1622	He then tries to obtain a settlement of the Germandisputes with the aid of Spain	[51]
May.	A conference for the pacification of Germany held atBrussels	[52]
	Frederick prepares for War, with the help of Mansfeld,the Margrave of Baden, and Christian ofBrunswick, the latter being a Protestant Administratorof the Bishopric of Halberstadt	[53]
	He ravages the diocese of Paderborn	[55]
[Section IV.]—The Fight for the Lower Palatinate (April-July1622).
Ap. 12. May 6.	Frederick joins Mansfeld. Tilly defeats the Margraveof Baden at Wimpfen	[57]
June.	Frederick, hopeful of success, refuses to consent to atreaty, and seizes the Landgrave of Darmstadt	[58]
	But is driven by Tilly to retreat	[59]
June 30.	Defeat of Christian of Brunswick at Höchst	[59]
July.	Mansfeld abandons the Palatinate, and Frederick,after taking refuge at Sedan, retires to the Hague	[60]
[CHAPTER IV.] MANSFELD AND CHRISTIAN IN NORTH GERMANY.
[Section I.]—Mansfeld's March into the Netherlands (July-November1622).
1622	Tilly proceeds to reduce the fortified places in theLower Palatinate	[60]
1623 Feb. 13	The Electorate transferred from Frederick to Maximilian	[61]
1622	Change of feeling in North Germany	[61]
Aug.	Mansfeld and Christian establish themselves in Lorraine,and then try to cut their way through theSpanish Netherlands to join the Duke	[63]
Aug. 28.	Battle of Fleurus. Christian loses his arm	[63]
Nov.	Mansfeld establishes himself in East Friesland	[64]
[Section II.]—Christian of Brunswick in Lower Saxony(November 1622-August 1623).
1622	The Lower Saxon Circle urged by Tilly to join himagainst Mansfeld, and by Christian of Brunswick tojoin him against Tilly	[64]
1623 Feb.	Warlike preparations of the Circle	[65]
Aug. 6.	Christian expelled from the Circle, and defeated byTilly at Stadtlohn	[66]
[Section III.]—Danger of the Lower Saxon Circle (August-December1623).
1623	The North German Protestant Bishoprics in danger	[66]
Aug.	Alarm in the Lower Saxon Circle	[68]
Dec.	But nothing is done, and its troops are disbanded	[68]
[Section IV.]—England and France (October 1623-August 1624).
Oct.	Foreign Powers ready to interfere	[69]
	Return of the Prince of Wales from Madrid	[70]
1624 Feb.‑May	Divergence between the English House of Commonsand James I. upon the mode of recovering the Palatinate	[70]
	Position of the Huguenots in France	[72]
[Section V.]—Rise of Richelieu (August 1624-September1625).
Aug.	Lewis XIII. makes Richelieu his chief minister. Heis divided between a desire to combat Spain and adesire to reduce the Huguenots to submission	[72]
	Richelieu's position less strong than it afterwardsbecame. He has to make great allowances for theKing's humour	[74]
Dec.	French attack upon the Spanish garrisons in theValtelline	[75]
1625 Jan.‑June	Failure of Mansfeld's expedition intended by Jamesto recover the Palatinate	[76]
Jan.	Richelieu's plans for engaging more deeply in thewar frustrated by the rising of the Huguenots ofRochelle	[77]
Sept.	The Huguenot fleet is defeated, but Rochelle holdsout	[77]
[CHAPTER V.] INTERVENTION OF THE KING OF DENMARK.
[Section I.]—Christian IV. and Gustavus Adolphus (1624).
	Character and position of Christian IV., King ofDenmark	[78]
	Genius of Gustavus Adolphus	[79]
	Sketch of the earlier part of his reign	[80]
	His interest in German affairs	[82]
[Section II.]—English Diplomacy (August 1624-July 1625).
1624 Aug.	The Kings of Denmark and Sweden asked by JamesI. to join him in recovering the Palatinate	[84]
1625 Jan.	The English Government, thinking the demands ofGustavus exorbitant, forms an alliance with Christian IV.	[85]
June.	Meeting of the first Parliament of Charles I.
June	Gustavus directs his forces against Poland	[86]
Mar. 27.	Death of James I. Accession of Charles I.	[86]
July 18.	Christian IV., at the head of the Circle of LowerSaxony, enters upon war with the army of theLeague commanded by Tilly	[87]
Aug.	Dissolution of the first Parliament of Charles I.
[Section III.]—Wallenstein's Armament (July 1625-February1626).
	The Emperor needs more forces	[87]
	Wallenstein offers to raise an army for him. Accountof Wallenstein's early life	[89]
	The system by which the army is to be supported isto be one of forced contributions	[90]
	Oppressive burdens laid thereby on the country	[91]
	Wallenstein enters the dioceses of Magdeburg andHalberstadt, and lies quietly there during the winter	[92]
1626 Feb.	Failure of negotiations for peace	[93]
[Section IV.]—Defeat of Mansfeld and Christian IV.(February-August 1626).
1626 Feb.	Numerical superiority on the side of the King ofDenmark, but the Imperialists are superior in otherrespects	[94]
	Failure of the supplies promised to Christian byCharles I.	[95]
Feb.	Meeting of the second Parliament of Charles I.—Impeachmentof Buckingham
Ap. 25.	Mansfeld defeated by Wallenstein at the Bridge ofDessau	[96]
June.	Dissolution of the second Parliament of Charles I.
Aug. 27.	Christian IV. defeated by Tilly at Lutter	[97]
	Wallenstein pursues Mansfeld into Hungary	[97]
[CHAPTER VI.] STRALSUND AND ROCHELLE.
[Section I.]—Fresh Successes of Wallenstein (August 1626-October1627).
1626	Divergence between the League and Wallenstein	[98]
Nov.	Wallenstein advocates religious equality and the predominanceof the army	[98]
1627 Jan.	He persuades Ferdinand to increase his army, and iscreated Duke of Friedland, in spite of the growingdissatisfaction with his proceedings	[100]
May‑Aug.	The King of Denmark hopes to resist Tilly, butWallenstein returns from Hungary, and gains possessionof Silesia	[101]
Sept. 20.	Defeat of the Margrave of Baden at Heiligenhafen	[102]
Oct.	Christian IV. flies to the Island of Fünen, leavingJutland to Wallenstein	[102]
[Section II.]—Resistance to Wallenstein in the Empire(October 1627-February 1628).
1627 Oct.	Meeting of the Electors at Mühlhausen. They complainof Wallenstein	[103]
1628	The commercial towns of North Germany jealous ofWallenstein	[105]
Feb.	The Emperor declares the Dukes of Mecklenburg tohave forfeited their lands and titles, and pledges theterritory to Wallenstein	[106]
	Wallenstein tries in vain to gain over the HanseTowns	[106]
	He attempts to establish himself on the coast of theBaltic by getting possession of the towns	[108]
[Section III.]—The Siege of Stralsund (August-February 1628).
Feb.	As Stralsund refuses to admit a garrison, it is attackedby Wallenstein's orders	[108]
May	It is succoured by Denmark and Sweden	[109]
Aug. 3.	The siege is raised	[110]
[Section IV.]—The Siege of Rochelle (1625-1628).
1625	Richelieu would have made peace with the Huguenotsif he had been able	[112]
1626	An agreement is effected, but comes to nothingthrough the jealousy of Charles I.	[112]
1627	War between France and England, Buckingham'sexpedition to Rhé	[113]
Nov.	Richelieu besieges Rochelle	[114]
1628 Mar	Meeting of the third Parliament of Charles I.
May	Failure of an English fleet to succour Rochelle	[115]
June	The Petition of Right granted
Aug.	Murder of the Duke of Buckingham	[115]
Nov. 1.	Surrender of Rochelle	[115]
	Contrast between France and Germany. Tolerationgranted to the Huguenots	[116]
[CHAPTER VII.] THE EDICT OF RESTITUTION.
[Section I.]—Oppression of the Protestants (March1628-May 1629).
1628 Mar.	Surrender of Stade to Tilly	[117]
1629 Jan.	Wallenstein fails to take Glückstadt	[117]
Mar.	Dissolution of the third Parliament of Charles I.
May 22.	Peace of Lübeck between Christian IV. and theEmperor	[118]
	Wallenstein invested with the Duchy of Mecklenburg	[118]
1628	The Protestants oppressed in the South of Germany	[119]
1629 Mar. 29.	Issue of the Edict of Restitution	[120]
[Section II.]—French Intervention in Italy (1628-1630).
1628	War in Italy for the succession to the Duchy ofMantua	[121]
1629 Mar.	Richelieu enters Italy, and compels the Spaniards toraise the siege of Casale	[122]
	Rebellion of Rohan in the south of France	[123]
1629	Richelieu again enters Italy, seizes Pignerol andSaluces, and again forces the Spaniards to raise thesiege of Casale	[123]
1630	Negotiations between France and Sweden	[124]
[Section III.]—Wallenstein deprived of his Command(March 1629-September 1630).
1629	Wallenstein increases his forces	[125]
	Jealousy between him and the Catholic Electors	[126]
1630	Assembly at Ratisbon	[127]
July 3.	It demands that Wallenstein be deprived of hiscommand	[127]
July 4.	Landing of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany	[128]
Sept.	Dismissal of Wallenstein	[129]
	Tilly in command	[130]
[Section IV.]—The Swedes establish themselves on the Coast of theBaltic (July 1630-January 1631).
July.	Discipline in the Swedish Army	[130]
	The Duke of Pomerania submits to him, but theElector of Brandenburg declares himself neutral	[130]
1651	The treaty of Bärwalde between France and Sweden	[132]
[Section V.]—The Fall of Magdeburg (January-May 1631).
Jan.	Success of Gustavus on the Baltic coast	[133]
March.	The Electors of Saxony hold a Protestant Assemblyat Leipzig	[133]
	Tilly attacks the Swedes, but is driven to retreat	[134]
Ap. 26.	Treaty of Cherasco between France and the English	[135]
May 15.	Convention between Gustavus and the Elector ofBrandenburg	[136]
May 20.	Magdeburg stormed, plundered, and burnt	[136]
	The Emperor refuses to cancel the Edict of Restitution	[137]
[CHAPTER VIII.] THE VICTORIES OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS.
[Section I.]—Alliance between the Swedes and the Saxons(June-September 1631).
June 21.	Gustavus compels the Elector of Brandenburg to analliance	[138]
July.	Gustavus at the Camp of Werben	[138]
Aug.	Tilly summons the Elector of Saxony to submit	[139]
Sept.	He attacks Saxony, upon which the Elector forms analliance with Gustavus	[139]
	Gustavus joins the Saxons	[140]
[Section II.]—Battle of Breitenfeld (September 1631).
Sept. 17.	Victory of Gustavus over Tilly at Breitenfeld	[141]
	Wallenstein's intrigues with Gustavus	[142]
	Wallenstein and Gustavus unlikely to agree	[143]
	Political and military designs of Gustavus	[144]
	He looks for a basis of operations on the Rhine	[146]
[Section III.]—March of Gustavus into South Germany(October 1631-May 1632).
Oct.	March of Gustavus to Mentz	[148]
1632	In spite of the objections of the French, he attacksBavaria	[149]
Ap. 14.	Tilly defeated and mortally wounded at the passageof the Lech	[149]
May 17.	Gustavus enters Munich	[150]
[Section IV.]—Wallenstein's Restoration to command(September 1631-June 1632).
Sept.	Wallenstein breaks off all intercourse with Gustavus	[151]
Nov.	Attempts to reconcile the Elector of Saxony with theEmperor	[152]
Dec.	Is reinstated temporarily in the command of the ImperialArmy	[153]
1632	Character of that Army	[153]
April	Wallenstein permanently appointed Commander	[155]
May	Offers peace to the Saxons, and drives them out ofBohemia	[155]
June	Gustavus does not approve of the terms of peace offeredby Wallenstein	[156]
[Section V.]—Struggle between Gustavus and Wallenstein(June-October 1632).
June	Gustavus and Wallenstein opposed to one another atNüremberg	[157]
	Efforts of Gustavus to maintain discipline	[159]
Sept. 4.	Fails to storm Wallenstein's lines	[160]
Sept. 18.	Gustavus leaves Nüremberg	[160]
Oct.	Wallenstein marches into Saxony	[160]
[Section VI.]—The Battle of Lützen (October-November 1632).
Oct.	Gustavus follows Wallenstein into Saxony	[161]
Nov. 16.	Battle of Lützen	[162]
	Death of Gustavus	[163]
	Victory of the Swedes	[164]
	Irreparable loss by the death of Gustavus to the Protestants	[164]
[CHAPTER IX.] THE DEATH OF WALLENSTEIN AND THE TREATY OF PRAGUE.
[Section I.]—French Influence in Germany (November 1632-April1633).
1633	Differences between Bernhard and Oxenstjerna	[166]
Ap. 23.	The League of Heilbronn signed	[167]
	Firm establishment of Richelieu's authority inFrance	[168]
	Richelieu's interposition in German affairs	[169]
[Section II.]—Wallenstein's Attempt to dictate Peace(April-December 1633).
1633	Wallenstein's peace negotiations with the Swedesand Saxons	[170]
Oct.	He drives the Saxons out of Silesia	[172]
Nov.	Ratisbon taken by Bernhard	[173]
	Spanish opposition to a peace which would leaveSpain exposed to French attacks	[173]
Dec.	Wallenstein thinks of making peace, whether the Emperorconsents or not	[175]
[Section III.]—Resistance to Wallenstein's Plans(January-February 1634).
1634 Jan.	Oñate, the Spanish Ambassador, persuades the Emperorthat Wallenstein is a traitor	[175]
	Ferdinand determines to displace Wallenstein	[176]
Feb. 19.	Wallenstein engages the Colonels to support him	[177]
[Section IV.]—Assassination of Wallenstein (February 1634).
Feb. 18.	Wallenstein declared a traitor	[179]
Feb. 21.	The garrison of Prague declares against him	[179]
Feb. 24.	Wallenstein at Eger	[179]
Feb. 25.	He is assassinated	[181]
	Comparison between Gustavus and Wallenstein	[181]
[Section V.]—Imperialist Victories and the Treaty of Prague(February 1634-May 1635).
1634 Feb.	The King of Hungary reorganizes the imperialarmy	[181]
Sept. 6.	In conjunction with the Cardinal-Infant, he defeatsBernhard at Nördlingen	[183]
	Consequent necessity of an increased French intervention	[184]
1635	Peace of Prague	[184]
May 30.	It is not universally accepted	[185]
	Miserable condition of Germany. Notes of an Englishtraveller	[187]
[CHAPTER X.] THE PREPONDERANCE OF FRANCE.
[Section I.]—Open Intervention of France (May 1635).
1635	Protestantism not out of danger	[189]
May.	Close alliance of some of the Princes with France	[190]
	Importance of the possession of Alsace and Lorraine	[191]
May 19.	France declares war against Spain	[192]
[Section II.]—Spanish Successes (May 1635-December 1637).
1635	Failure of the French attack on the Spanish Netherlands	[192]
1636	Spanish invasion of France	[193]
Oct. 4.	Baner's victory at Wittstock	[194]
1637 Feb. 15.	Death of Ferdinand II. Accession of FerdinandIII.	[194]
	Imperialist success in Germany	[195]
[Section III.]—The Struggle for Alsace (January 1638-July1639).
1638	Bernhard's victories in the Breisgau and Alsace	[195]
July 8.	Death of Bernhard	[196]
[Section IV.]—French Successes (July 1639-Dec. 1642).
	French maritime successes	[197]
1639	Spanish fleet taking refuge in the Downs	[198]
	It is destroyed by the Dutch	[198]
1640	Insurrection of Catalonia	[199]
Nov.	Independence of Portugal	[200]
1641	Defeat of the Imperialists at Wolfenbüttel	[201]
1642	Defeat of the Imperialists at Kempten	[201]
Aug.	Charles I. sets up his standard. Beginning of theEnglish Civil War
Dec. 4.	Death of Richelieu	[201]
[Section V.]—Aims and Character of Richelieu (December 1642-May1643).
	Richelieu's domestic policy	[201]
	Contrast between France and England	[202]
	Richelieu's foreign policy	[203]
	Moderation of his aims	[204]
1643 May 14.	Death of Lewis XIII	[205]
[Section VI.]—More French Victories (May 1643—August 1645).
1643	Rule of Cardinal Mazarin	[205]
May 19.	Enghien defeats the Spaniards at Rocroy	[206]
	The French kept in check in Germany	[207]
1644	Enghien and Turenne. Battle of Freiburg	[208]
July	Battle of Marston Moor
1645 Aug. 3.	Second Battle of Nördlingen	[208]
Mar. 6.	Swedish victory at Jankow	[209]
[CHAPTER XI.] THE END OF THE WAR.
[Section I.]—Turenne's Strategy (June 1645-October 1648).
1645	Negotiations for peace begun	[209]
June.	Battle of Naseby
	Aims of the Emperor and the Duke of Bavaria	[210]
1646	Turenne outmanœuvres the Imperialists	[212]
1647 May‑Sept.	Truce between the French and the Bavarians	[213]
1648 May 17.	Defeat of the Bavarians at Zusmarshausen	[213]
[Section II.]—The Treaty of Westphalia (Oct. 1648).
1648	Terms of the peace	[213]
Oct. 24.	How far was toleration effected by it	[214]
	General desire for peace	[217]
[Section III.]—Condition of Germany.
	Debasing effects of the war	[217]
	Decrease of the population	[218]
	Moral and intellectual decadence	[218]
	Disintegration of Germany	[220]
	Protestantism saved, and with it the future culture ofGermany	[220]
[Section IV.]—Continuance of the War between France andSpain (1648-1660).
1648	Recognition of the independence of the DutchRepublic	[221]
1649	Execution of Charles I.
	The Fronde	[222]
	Continuance of the war with Spain	[223]
	Alliance between France and Cromwell	[223]
1660	Treaty of Pyrenees	[224]
	French greatness based on Tolerance	[225]
	Intolerance of Lewis XIV. and downfall of theFrench monarchy	[226]

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