The Vertebrate Skeleton

by Sidney H. Reynolds

A few references are given, but no attempt has been made to give anything like a complete list. The abbreviations of the titles of periodicals are those used in the Zoological Record.

I have always referred freely to the textbooks treating of the subjects dealt with, and in particular I should like to mention that the section devoted to the skeleton of mammals is, as it could hardly fail to be, to a considerable extent based on Sir W.H. Flower's Osteology of the Mammalia.

SIDNEY H. REYNOLDS.

March 10, 1897.

---

CONTENTS.

	PAGE
CHAPTER I.
Introductory account of the skeleton in general	[1]
CHAPTER II.
Classification	[30]
CHAPTER III.
Skeleton of Hemichordata, Urochordata and Cephalochordata	[50]
CHAPTER IV.
Skeletal characters of the Vertebrata. The skeleton in the Cyclostomata	[53]
CHAPTER V.
Skeletal characters of the Ichthyopsida. Characters of the several groups of Pisces	[59]
CHAPTER VI.
The skeleton of the Dogfish (Scyllium canicula)	[71]
CHAPTER VII.
The skeleton of the Codfish (Gadus morrhua) and the skull of the Salmon (Salmo salar)	[83]
CHAPTER VIII.
General account of the skeleton in Fishes	[104]
CHAPTER IX.
Characters of the several groups of Amphibia	[133]
CHAPTER X.
The skeleton of the Newt (Molge cristata)	[138]
CHAPTER XI.
The skeleton of the Frog (Rana temporaria)	[151]
CHAPTER XII.
General account of the skeleton in Amphibia	[168]
CHAPTER XIII.
Skeletal characters of the Sauropsida. Characters of the several groups of Reptiles	[189]
CHAPTER XIV.
The skeleton of the Green Turtle (Chelone midas)	[214]
CHAPTER XV.
The skeleton of the Crocodile (Crocodilus palustris)	[237]
CHAPTER XVI.
General account of the skeleton in Reptiles	[270]
CHAPTER XVII.
Characters of the several groups of Birds	[295]
CHAPTER XVIII.
The skeleton of the Wild Duck (Anas boschas)	[302]
CHAPTER XIX.
General account of the skeleton in Birds	[328]
CHAPTER XX.
Characters of the several groups of Mammalia	[343]
CHAPTER XXI.
The skeleton of the Dog (Canis familiaris)	[374]
CHAPTER XXII.
General account of the skeleton in Mammalia. The exoskeleton and vertebral column	[416]
CHAPTER XXIII.
General account of the skeleton in Mammalia (continued). The skull and appendicular skeleton	[455]
LIST OF AUTHORS REFERRED TO.	[529]
INDEX.	[531]

---

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG.		PAGE
1	Diagrammatic sections of various forms of teeth	[6]
2	Cervical vertebrae of an Ox (Bos taurus)	[15]
3	Diagram of the skeleton of Amphioxus lanceolatus	[51]
4	Dorsal, lateral, and ventral views of the skull of Petromyzon marinus	[56]
5	Skull of a male Chimaera monstrosa	[65]
6	Lateral view of the skull of a Dogfish (Scyllium canicula)	[75]
7	Semidorsal view of the pectoral girdle and fins of a Dogfish (Scyllium canicula)	[80]
8	Dorsal view of the pelvic girdle and fins of a male Dogfish (Scyllium canicula)	[81]
9	Dorsal and ventral views of the cranium of a Salmon (Salmo salar) from which most of the membrane bones have been removed	[88]
10	Lateral view of the chondrocranium of a Salmon (Salmo alar)	[90]
11	Lateral view of the skull of a Salmon (Salmo salar)	[92]
12	Mandibular and hyoid arches of a Cod (Gadus morrhua)	[99]
13	Right half of the pectoral girdle and right pectoral fin of a Cod (Gadus morrhua)	[102]
14	Diagram of a section through the jaw of a Shark (Odontaspis americanus) showing the succession of teeth	[107]
15	Part of the lower jaw of a Shark (Galeus)	[108]
16	Skulls of Notidanus and Cestracion	[118]
17	Dorsal view of the branchial arches of Heptanchus	[120]
18	Lateral view of the skull of a Sturgeon (Acipenser sturio)	[122]
19	Dorsal and ventral views of the cranium of Ceratodus miolepis	[125]
20	Lateral view of the skeleton of Ceratodus miolepis	[128]
21	Dorsal, ventral and lateral views of the skull of a Newt (Molge cristata)	[142]
22	Ventral and lateral views of the shoulder-girdle and sternum of an old male Crested Newt (Molge cristata)	[146]
23	Right posterior and anterior limbs of a Newt (Molge cristata)	[148]
24	Dorsal and ventral views of the cranium of a Common Frog (Rana temporaria)	[155]
25	Dorsal and ventral views of the cranium of a Common Frog (Rana temporaria) from which the membrane bones have mostly been removed	[157]
26	Lateral view of the skull and posterior view of the cranium of a Common Frog (Rana temporaria)	[159]
27	Dorsal view of the skull of a Labyrinthodont (Capitosaurus nasutus)	[176]
28	Ventral view of the cranium, and lateral view of the cranium and mandible of Siphonops annulatus	[178]
29	Visceral arches of Amphibia: A, Molge cristata; B, Rana temporaria, adult; C, Tadpole of Rana; D, Siredon pisciformis	[181]
30	Shoulder-girdle and sternum of an adult male Common Frog (Rana temporaria), and of an adult female Docidophryne gigantea	[183]
31	A, Right antibrachium and manus of a larval Salamander (Salamandra maculosa); B, Right tarsus and adjoining bones of Molge sp.	[186]
32	Lateral and dorsal views of the skull of an Ichthyosaurus	[196]
33	Lateral view and longitudinal section of the skull of a Lizard (Varanus varius)	[201]
34	Lateral view of the shoulder-girdle of a Lizard (Varanus)	[202]
35	Restored skeleton of Ceratosaurus nasicornis	[206]
36	Dorsal and ventral views of the carapace of a Loggerhead Turtle (Thalassochelys caretta)	[216]
37	Plastron of a Green Turtle (Chelone midas)	[218]
38	The skull of a Green Turtle (Chelone midas)	[223]
39	Longitudinal vertical section through the cranium of a Green Turtle (Chelone midas)	[226]
40	Anterior limb of a young Hawksbill Turtle (Chelone imbricata), and posterior limb of a large Green Turtle (Chelone midas)	[234]
41	The first four cervical vertebrae of a Crocodile (Crocodilus vulgaris)	[239]
42	Anterior view of a late thoracic and the first sacral vertebrae of a Crocodile (Crocodilus palustris)	[242]
43	Palatal aspect of the cranium and mandible of an Alligator (Caiman latirostris)	[245]
44	Lateral view of the skull of an Alligator (Caiman latirostris)	[248]
45	Longitudinal section through the skull of an Alligator (Caiman latirostris)	[253]
46	Sternum and associated membrane bones of a Crocodile (Crocodilus palustris)	[261]
47	Left half of the pectoral girdle of an Alligator (Caiman latirostris)	[262]
48	Right anterior and posterior limbs of an Alligator (Caiman latirostris)	[264]
49	Pelvis and sacrum of an Alligator (Caiman latirostris)	[267]
50	Preparation of part of the right mandibular ramus of Crocodilus palustris	[274]
51	Dorsal and ventral views of the skull of a Common Snake (Tropidonotus natrix)	[279]
52	Skull of Hatteria (Sphenodon punctatus)	[282]
53	Hyoids of an Alligator (Caiman latirostris), and of a Green Turtle (Chelone midas)	[285]
54	Ventral view of the shoulder-girdle and sternum of Loemanctus longipes	[287]
55	Left half of the skeleton of a Common Fowl (Gallus bankiva)	[301]
56	The wing of a Wild Duck (Anas boschas)	[304]
57	Wings of a Wild Duck with the coverts removed (Anas boschas)	[305]
58	Dorsal and ventral views of the pelvis and sacrum of a Duck (Anas boschas)	[311]
59	Skull of a Duck (Anas boschas)	[312]
60	A, Ventral view of the cranium of a Duck (Anas boschas); B, Cranium and mandible seen from the left side	[313]
61	Lateral view of the pelvis and sacrum of a Duck (Anas boschas)	[325]
62	Third cervical vertebra of an Ostrich (Struthio camelus)	[331]
63	Shoulder-girdle and sternum of A, Black Vulture (Vultur cinereus); B, Peacock (Pavo cristatus); C, Pelican (Pelicanus conspicillatus)	[337]
64	Bones of the right wing of A, a Penguin; B, an Ostrich (Struthio camelus) and C, a Gannet (Sula alba)	[339]
65	Pelvic girdle and sacrum of A, Cassowary (Casuarius galeatus); B, Owen's Apteryx (A. oweni); C, Broad-billed Rhea (R. macrorhyncha); D, Ostrich (Struthio camelus)	[340]
66	Ventral view of the shoulder-girdle and sternum of a Duckbill (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus)	[347]
67	Cervical vertebrae of a Ca'ing Whale (Globicephalus melas)	[354]
68	Dentition of a Dog (Canis familiaris)	[375]
69	Atlas and axis vertebrae of a Dog (Canis familiaris)	[379]
70	Second thoracic and second lumbar vertebrae of a Dog (Canis familiaris)	[382]
71	Diagram of the relations of the principal bones in the Mammalian skull	[385]
72	Vertical longitudinal section through skull of a Dog (Canis familiaris)	[387]
73	Dorsal view of the cranium of a Dog (Canis familiaris)	[389]
74	Diagram of the mammalian tympanic cavity and associated bones	[391]
75	Ventral view of the cranium of a Dog (Canis familiaris)	[396]
76	Sternum and sternal ribs of a Dog (Canis familiaris)	[403]
77	Bones of the left upper arm and fore-arm of a Dog (Canis familiaris)	[407]
78	Right innominate bone, A, of a full-grown Terrier; B, of a Collie Puppy	[410]
79	Left leg bones of a Dog (Canis familiaris)	[411]
80	A, Right manus; B, Right pes of a Dog (Canis familiaris)	[413]
81	Skull of a young Indian Rhinoceros (R. unicornis) showing the change of the dentition	[421]
82	Palatal aspect of the cranium and mandible of a Donkey (Equus asinus)	[431]
83	Skull of Procavia (Dendrohyrax) dorsalis	[433]
84	Carnassial or sectorial teeth of Carnivora	[436]
85	Mandible of Isabelline Bear (Ursus isabellinus)	[438]
86	Left mandibular ramus of the Sea Leopard (Ogmorhinus leptonyx)	[439]
87	Cervical vertebrae of a young Fin Whale (Balaenoptera musculus)	[444]
88	Atlas and axis vertebrae of an Ox (Bos taurus)	[445]
89	First and second thoracic vertebrae of an Ox (Bos taurus)	[449]
90	Skulls of Tasmanian Wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus) and Hairy-nosed Wombat (Phascolomys latifrons)	[456]
91	Skull of Two-fingered Sloth (Choloepus didactylus)	[458]
92	Skull of Rhytina stelleri	[460]
93	Lateral view and longitudinal section of the skull of a young Ca'ing Whale (Globicephalus melas)	[463]
94	Cranium and mandible of a Pig (Sus scrofa)	[466]
95	Mandible of a Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius)	[467]
96	Skull of a young Indian Elephant (Elephas indicus)	[474]
97	Longitudinal section of the skull of a young Indian Elephant (Elephas indicus)	[475]
98	Half-front view of the skull of a Porcupine (Hystrix cristata)	[477]
99	Skulls of an old and of a young Gorilla (Gorilla savagei)	[483]
100	Malleus, stapes, and incus of Man, Dog, and Rabbit	[485]
101	Skeleton of a Cape Buffalo (Bubalus caffer)	[492]
102	Lateral and dorsal views of the shoulder-girdle and part of the sternum of the Spiny Anteater (Echidna aculeata)	[494]
103	Skeleton of a Llama (Auchenia glama)	[496]
104	Dorsal view of the sternum and right half of the shoulder-girdle of Mus sylvaticus	[498]
105	Anterior surface of the right humerus of a Wombat (Phascolomys latifrons)	[500]
106	Manus of Perissodactyles: A, Left manus of Tapirus; B, Right manus of Titanotherium; C, Left manus of Chalicotherium giganteum	[508]
107	Left manus of A, Coryphodon hamatus; B, Phenacodus primaevus; C, Procavia (Dendrohyrax) arboreus	[510]
108	Left anterior and posterior limbs and limb girdles of Uintatherium mirabile	[516]
109	Left femur of an Ox (Bos taurus) and of a Sumatran Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sumatrensis)	[518]
110	Pes of A, a Tapir (Tapirus americanus); B, a Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sumatrensis); C, Hipparion gracile; D, a Horse (Equus caballus)	[524]