French Revolution
BY
CHARLES EDWARD MALLET
Late of Balliol College, Oxford
Lecturer in History on the Staff of the Oxford University Extension
LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET
1893
Oxford
HORACE HART, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
CONTENTS
| PAGES | |
| [Introductory] | [1]-4 |
| [CHAPTER I.] | |
| The Condition of France in the Eighteenth Century | [5]-27 |
| The old Monarchy in France.—Survivals of free institutions.—Centraliseddespotism of the Crown.—The Intendant'sposition and powers.—Evils of the system.—TheGovernment sensitive to criticism but all-pervading.—Classdivisions.—The nobles and their privileges.—The ruinednobles of the provinces and the rich nobles of the Court.—TheChurch, and the great varieties of condition in it.—TheMiddle Class, its privileges and exemptions.—Usurpationsand spirit of the guilds.—Position of the poorest classin town and country.—Peasant owners, farmers and métayers.—Feudaloppression from which the peasant suffered.—Exactionsof the Government.—Abuses in the system oftaxation.—The Custom-house system and its results.—Increaseof vagrancy and disorder.—Isolation of the labourer. | |
| [CHAPTER II.] | |
| The Last Years of the Ancien Régime | [28]-54 |
| The intellectual revolt of the eighteenth century.—Repudiationof authority and dogma.—Rise of the new politicalphilosophy.—The literary leaders.—Montesquieu.—Voltaire.—Diderotand the Encyclopaedists.—Defects of theirtheory.—Helvetius and Holbach.—The Economists.—Morelly.—Rousseau.—Reasonsfor Rousseau's influence.—TheContrat Social, its doctrines and defects.—Universalityof the philosophical and humanitarian spirit inEurope.—Its effects upon politics and society in France.—Itseffects plainly visible in the Government, in Louis XVI,Turgot and Necker.—The Government begins to undertakelarge reforms.—Progress of Louis' reign.—Marie Antoinetteand Calonne.—The Notables of 1787.—Loménie de Brienneand the struggle with the Parlements.—Resistance to theGovernment.—The Assembly of Vizille.—Recall of Necker,and summoning of the States-General.—Hesitating policyof the Government.—Rules for the General Election.—Questionsas to the numbers of the Tiers-État, and as tothe union or separation of the three Orders.—Irresolutionof Necker. | |
| [CHAPTER III.] | |
| The Early Days of the Revolution | [55]-70 |
| Meeting of the States-General.—The Commons insist onthe separation of the three Orders.—Deadlock for sixweeks.—The Commons constitute themselves the NationalAssembly on the 17th June.—The Tennis Court Oath.—TheRoyal Sitting of the 23rd June.—Ascendency of theCourt party.—Dismissal of Necker.—Rising in Paris andcapture of the Bastille.—Grave disorder in France, and thetwo main causes of it.—Various motives of the risings inthe country.—Complete collapse of the regular authorities.—Spontaneousorganisation of the electors.—Unfortunatepolicy of the Assembly.—Its inexperience and susceptibility.—Abstractdiscussions of July and August.—The 4thAugust.—Difficulties of Bailly and Lafayette in Paris.—Freshcauses of discontent there.—The outbreak of the 5thOctober, and its results. | |
| [CHAPTER IV.] | |
| The Labours of the Constituent Assembly | [71]-97 |
| Inclination of the Assembly to follow out its theoriesblindly without regard to consequences.—Hopes of astrong Government frustrated by the decree of the 7thNovember.—Results of that decree.—Jealousy of theExecutive.—New system of local government.—Its defects.—Powerconcentrated in the new municipalities.—Burdensomenature of the duties imposed on active citizens.—Thetwo decrees imposing qualifications for the franchiseand for office.—Judicial reforms.—Military and navalchanges.—The Assembly's determination to make everythingelective.—Church policy.—Confiscation of Churchproperty.—Civil Constitution of the Clergy.—Criticism ofit.—Consequences of the schism in the Church.—Financialpolicy of the Assembly.—Necker's measures.—Increasingembarrassments of the State.—Origin of the Assignats.—Theirsubsequent history and depreciation.—Inadequateattempts made by the Assembly to balance its incomeand expenditure.—Its cowardly finance.—Criticism of itsaction. | |
| [CHAPTER V.] | |
| Parties and Politicians under the ConstituentAssembly | [98]-128 |
| No real party-government in the Assembly.—Gradual formationof parties.—The Conservative Right and its variousgroups.—Maury and Cazalés.—Mounier, Malouet and theirfriends.—The party of Reform.—Bailly, Sieyès, Talleyrand,Lafayette, Mirabeau, and others.—Duport, Barnave andLameth.—Robespierre and the extreme Left.—Predominanceof the democratic party outside the Assembly.—TheCordeliers, the Jacobins and other clubs.—The birth ofmodern journalism.—Prominent journalists and newspapers.—Mirabeauand Barère.—Brissot, Loustallot andCamille Desmoulins.—Marat and the Ami du Peuple.—Royalistjournals.—Mallet du Pan and the Mercure.—Importantpoliticians of this period.—Philippe of Orleans.—Necker.—TheComte de Provence.—Lafayette.—Mirabeau.—Mirabeau'sexceptional insight and ability.—Hisaims and attitude from the first.—His desire to establish astrong, popular Government.—His vain attempts to winLafayette.—His ascendency in the Assembly.—His notesfor the Court and plans for reconciling the Crown with theRevolution.—Summary of his character. | |
| [CHAPTER VI.] | |
| The Rise of the Jacobin Party | [129]-154 |
| The Revolution consists of two separate movements, onemainly political, the other mainly social.—Pause in theRevolution in 1791.—Apathy of the majority of voters.—Classeswhich had not gained what they expected from theRevolution.—Distress among the artisans and labourers.—Illogicalposition of the Constitutional party.—Causes ofits unpopularity with the poor.—The Jacobin theory.—Itsresults in practice.—Its triumph secured by violence.—Variouscauses of disorder.—Increase of the influence offorce in politics.—Numbers of the Jacobin party.—Itscomplete organisation.—Growth of Jacobin clubs.—Organisationof the Commune of Paris.—Influence of the activeSections.—Rise of Robespierre.—His character and policy.—Resultsof the King's flight to Varennes.—Attitude of theJacobin Club.—The 'Massacre of the Champ de Mars.'—Rallyof the Constitutional party.—Barren results of theirsuccess.—Reviving influence of the Jacobins.—Visible inthe Elections.—Critical state of the Revolution at the endof 1791. | |
| [CHAPTER VII.] | |
| The Influence of the War upon the Revolution | [155]-181 |
| Attitude of the European Powers towards the Revolution.—Catherineof Russia.—Gustavus of Sweden.—Joseph ofAustria.—Frederick William of Prussia.—Spain and England.—Troublein Poland and the East.—Accession ofLeopold.—His policy.—The French Emigrants.—Theiractivity in Europe.—Condé's Army.—Leopold's views onFrench affairs.—The 'august comedy' of Pillnitz.—Meetingof the Legislative Assembly in Paris.—Appearance ofthe Girondist party.—Objects of the Republican minorityin the legislature.—War policy of the Girondists.—Theirleaders.—Decrees of the autumn against emigrants andpriests.—Ministry of Narbonne.—Policy of the Jacobinswith regard to the war.—The Girondists in office.—Declarationof war.—Its momentous results.—Course of eventsdown to the 20th June, 1792.—Lafayette's last attempt tosave the Court.—Brunswick's Manifesto.—The 10th August.—Dantonin power.—Advance of the Allies.—The prisonmassacres of September.—Responsibility for them.—Battleof Valmy.—Retreat of the Allies.—General results of theRevolutionary war. | |
| [CHAPTER VIII.] | |
| The Fall of the Gironde | [182]-207 |
| The Elections of 1792.—Parties in the Convention.—TheGirondists and their advisers.—Madame Roland.—The partplayed by women in the French Revolution.—Differencebetween the Girondists and the Jacobins.—Rather one ofconduct than of principle.—No place in the Revolution forthe Girondists as a separate party.—Their only distinctivecharacteristics an idealised republicanism and a policy ofwar.—Beginning of the struggle between the two parties.—Trialand death of the King.—Demoralisation of politics.—TheGirondists lose ground, especially in Paris.—The warafter Valmy.—Dumouriez' defeat at Neerwinden.—Hisdesertion.—Important decrees of the Convention in thespring of 1793, preparing the instruments of the Terror.—Economicmeasures.—Growth of the influence of theJacobins.—Rising in La Vendée.—Organisation of theJacobin forces.—The Girondists, unprepared but alarmed,attack the Jacobins in April and May.—Warnings ofDutard.—State of feeling in Paris.—Arrest of Hébert andJacobin rising.—The 31st May and 2nd June.—Dangers ofthe Jacobin Government.—Its success on all sides.—Fateof the Girondists and others. | |
| [CHAPTER IX.] | |
| The Jacobins in Power | [208]-235 |
| The Constitution of '93.—Conflict between Jacobin theoryand Jacobin practice.—The Constitution suspended.—Intimidationof the Convention.—Services of its Committeesto the cause of reform.—The Revolutionary Government inParis and in the provinces.—The Committee of PublicSafety.—Its members, its divisions and its heroic work.—TheRepresentatives on Mission.—Varied character oftheir rule.—Their violence and excesses.—Principles of theTerrorists.—Influence of the Parisian Commune.—Supremacyof the State enforced in every relation of life.—TheState, in return for implicit obedience, undertakes to providefor all its subjects.—Its methods of doing this.—Attemptsto fix prices.—The Maximum ruthlessly enforced.—Ruinresulting from these arbitrary measures in industryand trade.—General scarcity of food.—The State regulatesprivate conduct and family life.—Abolition of the Christianfaith and of the Christian era.—Moral results.—The idealistsof the Terror.—Its practical agents.—Hébert and hisparty.—License and cruelty of many leading Terrorists.—Generalworthlessness of their subordinates.—Blindnessand self-delusion of the best among them.—Entire failureof the Terrorist ideal. | |
| [CHAPTER X.] | |
| The Struggle of Parties and the Ascendency ofRobespierre | [236]-260 |
| Ascendency of the party of the Commune.—A second party,that of the Dantonists, arises.—Danton's attitude.—Hisgreat services to the Revolution.—His weariness of factionand intrigue.—The third party, represented by the Governmentof the day.—Revolt against the Hébertists at theJacobin Club.-Headed by Robespierre and Desmoulins.—TheVieux Cordelier.—Collot d'Herbois' return to Parisin December, 1793, strengthens the Hébertists.—End ofthe struggle.—Triumph of the Government and fall of thetwo other parties in March, 1794.—Execution of Danton.—Conspicuousposition of Robespierre.—Grounds of hispopularity.—His intense belief in himself.—His genuinesentiment.—His lack of initiative and disingenuous reserve.—Hisincompetence as a practical politician.—His morbidsuspiciousness.—His strength.—His belief in the Terrorand attempts to regulate but not to check it.—The Worshipof the Supreme Being.—The Law of the 22nd Prairial.—Robespierre'sstruggle with his colleagues.—Triumph ofthe Convention on the 9th Thermidor over Robespierre andthe Commune. | |
| [CHAPTER XI.] | |
| The Reaction | [261]-283 |
| Results of the fall of Robespierre.—Progress of the reactionagainst the Terror.—The Mountain, the Right, and theThermidorians.—Fréron and the Jeunes Gens.—Closing ofthe Jacobin Club.—Arrest of Carrier.—Recall of the proscribeddeputies of the Right.—Measures with regard toreligion.—Arrest of Billaud, Collot and others.—Distressin Paris.—Breakdown of the economic system of theTerror.—Survey of Terrorist finance.—Embarrassmentsand expenses of the Terrorist Government.—Cambon'sremedial measures.—Republicanisation of the NationalDebt.—Decline of the Assignats.—Impending bankruptcyat the end of 1794.—Amount of Assignats in circulation.—Freshissues.—Their rapid decline.—Ruin and distressresulting.—High prices of food.—General dearth.—Theinsurrection of the 12th Germinal.—Measures of the reaction.—Theinsurrection of the 1st Prairial.—Suppression ofthe Jacobin party and disarming of Paris.—Progress of theWar.—Spirit of the French army.—Representatives onMission with it.—Great soldiers in its ranks.—Its reorganisationby Dubois-Crancé.—Campaign of 1793.—Victorieson the Belgian frontier, on the Rhine and in La Vendée.—Theten armies of the Republic.—European politics.—Selfishviews of Thugut, the Austrian minister.—Jealousybetween Austria and Prussia.—Outbreak of the Polishrevolt.—Victories of the French in Belgium and Holland.—Peace of Bâle.—Prospects of a general peace and of aRoyalist restoration.—The reaction checked.—Death ofthe Dauphin.—The Quiberon Expedition.—The WhiteTerror.—The Constitution of the Year III.—The decreesof Fructidor.—The insurrection of the 13th Vendémiaire.—Establishmentof the Directory.—Conclusion. | |
| [Table of Dates] | [285]-290 |
| [Appendix of Books] | [291]-293 |
| [Index] | [295]-307 |