Test by Included Fragments.—We may sometimes discover the relative age of two trap-rocks, or of an aqueous deposit and the trap on which it rests, by finding fragments of one included in the other in cases such as those before alluded to, where the evidence of superposition alone would be insufficient. It is also not uncommon to find a conglomerate almost exclusively composed of rolled pebbles of trap, associated with some fossiliferous stratified formation in the neighbourhood of massive trap. If the pebbles agree generally in mineral character with the latter, we are then enabled to determine its relative age by knowing that of the fossiliferous strata associated with the conglomerate. The origin of such conglomerates is explained by observing the shingle beaches composed of trap-pebbles in modern volcanoes, as at the base of Etna.
Recent and Post-pliocene Volcanic Rocks.—I shall now select examples of contemporaneous volcanic rocks of successive geological periods, to show that igneous causes have been in activity in all past ages of the world. They have been perpetually shifting the places where they have broken out at the earth’s surface, and we can sometimes prove that those areas which are now the great theatres of volcanic action were in a state of perfect tranquillity at remote geological epochs, and that, on the other hand, in places where at former periods the most violent eruptions took place at the surface and continued for a great length of time, there has been an entire suspension of igneous action in historical times, and even, as in the British Isles, throughout a large part of the antecedent Tertiary Period.
In the absence of British examples of volcanic rocks newer than the Upper Miocene, I may state that in other parts of the world, especially in those where volcanic eruptions are now taking place from time to time, there are tuffs and lavas belonging to that part of the Tertiary era the antiquity of which is proved by the presence of the bones of extinct quadrupeds which co-existed with terrestrial, fresh-water, and marine mollusca of species still living. One portion of the lavas, tuffs, and trap-dikes of Etna, Vesuvius, and the island of Ischia has been produced within the historical era; another and a far more considerable part originated at times immediately antecedent, when the waters of the Mediterranean were already inhabited by the existing testacea, but when certain species of elephant, rhinoceros, and other quadrupeds now extinct, inhabited Europe.
Vesuvius.—I have traced in the “Principles of Geology” the history of the changes which the volcanic region of Campania is known to have undergone during the last 2000 years. The aggregate effect of igneous operations during that period is far from insignificant, comprising as it does the formation of the modern cone of Vesuvius since the year 79, and the production of several minor cones in Ischia, together with that of Monte Nuovo in the year 1538. Lava-currents have also flowed upon the land and along the bottom of the sea—volcanic sand, pumice, and scoriæ have been showered down so abundantly that whole cities were buried—tracts of the sea have been filled up or converted into shoals—and tufaceous sediment has been transported by rivers and land-floods to the sea. There are also proofs, during the same recent period, of a permanent alteration of the relative levels of the land and sea in several places, and of the same tract having, near Puzzuoli, been alternately upheaved and depressed to the amount of more than twenty feet. In connection with these convulsions, there are found, on the shores of the Bay of Baiæ, recent tufaceous strata, filled with articles fabricated by the hands of man, and mingled with marine shells.
It has also been stated ([p. 206]), that when we examine this same region, it is found to consist largely of tufaceous strata, of a date anterior to human history or tradition, which are of such thickness as to constitute hills from 500 to more than 2000 feet in height. Some of these strata contain marine shells which are exclusively of living species, others contain a slight mixture, one or two per cent of species not known as living.
The ancient part of Vesuvius is called Somma, and consists of the remains of an older cone which appears to have been partly destroyed by explosion. In the great escarpment which this remnant of the ancient mountain presents towards the modern cone of Vesuvius, there are many dikes which are for the most part vertical, and traverse the inclined beds of lava and scoriæ which were successively superimposed during those eruptions by which the old cone was formed. They project in relief several inches, or sometimes feet, from the face of the cliff, being extremely compact, and less destructible than the intersected tuffs and porous lavas. In vertical extent they vary from a few yards to 500 feet, and in breadth from one to twelve feet. Many of them cut all the inclined beds in the escarpment of Somma from top to bottom, others stop short before they ascend above halfway. In mineral composition they scarcely differ from the lavas of Somma, the rock consisting of a base of leucite and augite, through which large crystals of augite and some of leucite are scattered.
Nothing is more remarkable than the usual parallelism of the opposite sides of the dikes, which correspond almost as regularly as the two opposite faces of a wall of masonry. This character appears at first the more inexplicable, when we consider how jagged and uneven are the rents caused by earthquakes in masses of heterogeneous composition, like those composing the cone of Somma. In explanation of this phenomenon, M. Necker refers us to Sir W. Hamilton’s account of an eruption of Vesuvius in the year 1779, who records the following fact: “The lavas, when they either boiled over the crater, or broke out from the conical parts of the volcano, constantly formed channels as regular as if they had been cut by art down the steep part of the mountain; and whilst in a state of perfect fusion, continued their course in those channels, which were sometimes full to the brim, and at other times more or less so, according to the quantity of matter in motion.
”These channels (says the same observer), I have found, upon examination after an eruption, to be in general from two to five or six feet wide, and seven or eight feet deep. They were often hid from the sight by a quantity of scoriæ that had formed a crust over them; and the lava, having been conveyed in a covered way for some yards, came out fresh again into an open channel. After an eruption, I have walked in some of those subterraneous or covered galleries, which were exceedingly curious, the sides, top, and bottom being worn perfectly smooth and even in most parts by the violence of the currents of the red-hot lavas which they had conveyed for many weeks successively.” I was able to verify this phenomenon in 1858, when a stream of lava issued from a lateral cone.[[3]] Now, the walls of a vertical fissure, through which lava has ascended in its way to a volcanic vent, must have been exposed to the same erosion as the sides of the channels before adverted to. The prolonged and uniform friction of the heavy fluid, as it is forced and made to flow upward, cannot fail to wear and smooth down the surfaces on which it rubs, and the intense heat must melt all such masses as project and obstruct the passage of the incandescent fluid.
The rock composing the dikes both in the modern and ancient part of Vesuvius is far more compact than that of ordinary lava, for the pressure of a column of melted matter in a fissure greatly exceeds that in an ordinary stream of lava; and pressure checks the expansion of those gases which give rise to vesicles in lava. There is a tendency in almost all the Vesuvian dikes to divide into horizontal prisms, a phenomenon in accordance with the formation of vertical columns in horizontal beds of lava; for in both cases the divisions which give rise to the prismatic structure are at right angles to the cooling surfaces. (See [ p. 510].)
Auvergne.—Although the latest eruptions in central France seem to have long preceded the historical era, they are so modern as to have a very intimate connection with the present superficial outline of the country and with the existing valleys and river-courses. Among a great number of cones with perfect craters, one called the Puy de Tartaret sent forth a lava-current which can be traced up to its crater, and which flowed for a distance of thirteen miles along the bottom of the present valley to the village of Nechers, covering the alluvium of the old valley in which were preserved the bones of an extinct species of horse, and of a lagomys and other quadrupeds all closely allied to recent animals, while the associated land-shells were of species now living, such as Cyclostoma elegans, Helix hortensis, H. nemoralis, H. lapicida, and Clausilia rugosa. That the current which has issued from the Puy de Tartaret may, nevertheless, be very ancient in reference to the events of human history, we may conclude, not only from the divergence of the mammiferous fauna from that of our day, but from the fact that a Roman bridge of such form and construction as continued in use only down to the fifth century, but which may be older, is now seen at a place about a mile and a half from St. Nectaire. This ancient bridge spans the river Couze with two arches, each about fourteen feet wide. These arches spring from the lava of Tartaret, on both banks, showing that a ravine precisely like that now existing had already been excavated by the river through that lava thirteen or fourteen centuries ago.