The Student's Elements of Geology

by Sir Charles Lyell

In Fig. 617 an attempt is made to show the inverted order in which sedimentary and Plutonic formations may occur in the earth’s crust. The oldest Plutonic rock, No. I, has been upheaved at successive periods until it has become exposed to view in a mountain-chain. This protrusion of No. I has been caused by the igneous agency which produced the newer Plutonic rocks Nos. II, III and IV. Part of the primary fossiliferous strata, No. I, have also been raised to the surface by the same gradual process. It will be observed that the Recent strata No. 4 and the Recent granite or Plutonic rock No. IV are the most remote from each other in position, although of contemporaneous date. According to this hypothesis, the convulsions of many periods will be required before Recent or Post-tertiary granite will be upraised so as to form the highest ridges and central axes of mountain-chains. During that time the recent strata No. 4 might be covered by a great many newer sedimentary formations.

Miocene Plutonic Rocks.—A considerable mass of syenite, in the Isle of Skye, is described by Dr. MacCulloch as intersecting limestone and shale, which are of the age of the lias. The limestone, which at a greater distance from the granite contains shells, exhibits no traces of them near its junction, where it has been converted into a pure crystalline marble.[^[4]] MacCulloch pointed out that the syenite here, as in Raasay, was newer than the secondary rocks, and Mr. Geikie has since shown that there is a strong probability that this Plutonic rock may be of Miocene age, because a similar Syenite having a true granitic character in its crystallisation has modified the Tertiary volcanic rocks of Ben More, in Mull, some of which have undergone considerable metamorphism.

Eocene Plutonic Rocks.—In a former part of this volume (Chapter 16), the great nummulitic formation of the Alps and Pyrenees was referred to the Eocene period, and it follows that vast movements which have raised those fossiliferous rocks from the level of the sea to the height of more than 10,000 feet above its level have taken place since the commencement of the Tertiary epoch. Here, therefore, if anywhere, we might expect to find hypogene formations of Eocene date breaking out in the central axis or most disturbed region of the loftiest chain in Europe. Accordingly, in the Swiss Alps, even the flysch, or upper portion of the nummulitic series, has been occasionally invaded by Plutonic rocks, and converted into crystalline schists of the hypogene class. There can be little doubt that even the talcose granite or gneiss of Mont Blanc itself has been in a fused or pasty state since the flysch was deposited at the bottom of the sea; and the question as to its age is not so much whether it be a secondary or tertiary granite or gneiss, as whether it should be assigned to the Eocene or Miocene epoch.

Great upheaving movements have been experienced in the region of the Andes, during the Post-tertiary period. In some part, therefore, of this chain, we may expect to discover tertiary Plutonic rocks laid open to view; and Mr. Darwin’s account of the Chilian Andes, to which the reader may refer, fully realises this expectation: for he shows that we have strong ground to presume that Plutonic rocks there exposed on a large scale are of later date than certain Secondary and Tertiary formations.

But the theory adopted in this work of the subterranean origin of the hypogene formations would be untenable, if the supposed fact here alluded to, of the appearance of tertiary granite at the surface, was not a rare exception to the general rule. A considerable lapse of time must intervene between the formation of Plutonic and metamorphic rocks in the nether regions and their emergence at the surface. For a long series of subterranean movements must occur before such rocks can be uplifted into the atmosphere or the ocean; and, before they can be rendered visible to man, some strata which previously covered them must have been stripped off by denudation.

We know that in the Bay of Baiæ in 1538, in Cutch in 1819, and on several occasions in Peru and Chili, since the commencement of the present century, the permanent upheaval or subsidence of land has been accompanied by the simultaneous emission of lava at one or more points in the same volcanic region. From these and other examples it may be inferred that the rising or sinking of the earth’s crust, operations by which sea is converted into land, and land into sea, are a part only of the consequences of subterranean igneous action. It can scarcely be doubted that this action consists, in a great degree, of the baking, and occasionally the liquefaction, of rocks, causing them to assume, in some cases a larger, in others a smaller volume than before the application of heat. It consists also in the generation of gases, and their expansion by heat, and the injection of liquid matter into rents formed in superincumbent rocks. The prodigious scale on which these subterranean causes have operated in Sicily since the deposition of the Newer Pliocene strata will be appreciated when we remember that throughout half the surface of that island such strata are met with, raised to the height of from 50 to that of 2000 and even 3000 feet above the level of the sea. In the same island also the older rocks which are contiguous to these marine tertiary strata must have undergone, within the same period, a similar amount of upheaval.

The like observations may be extended to nearly the whole of Europe, for, since the commencement of the Eocene Period, the entire European area, including some of the central and very lofty portions of the Alps themselves, as I have elsewhere shown,[^[5]] has, with the exception of a few districts, emerged from the deep to its present altitude. There must, therefore, have been at great depths in the earth’s crust, within the same period, an amount of subterranean change corresponding to this vast alteration of level affecting a whole continent.

The principal effect of subterranean movements during the Tertiary Period seems to have consisted in the upheaval of hypogene formations of an age anterior to the Carboniferous. The repetition of another series of movements, of equal violence, might upraise the Plutonic and metamorphic rocks of many secondary periods; and, if the same force should still continue to act, the next convulsions might bring up to the day the tertiary and recent hypogene rocks. In the course of such changes many of the existing sedimentary strata would suffer greatly by denudation, others might assume a metamorphic structure, or become melted down into Plutonic and volcanic rocks. Meanwhile the deposition of a great thickness of new strata would not fail to take place during the upheaval and partial destruction of the older rocks. But I must refer the reader to the last chapter but one of this volume for a fuller explanation of these views.

Plutonic Rocks of Cretaceous Period.—It will be shown in the next chapter that chalk, as well as lias, has been altered by granite in the eastern Pyrenees. Whether such granite be cretaceous or tertiary, cannot easily be decided. Suppose b, c, d, Fig. 618, to be three members of the Cretaceous series, the lowest of which, b, has been altered by the granite A, the modifying influence not having extended so far as c, or having but slightly affected its lowest beds. Now it can rarely be possible for the geologist to decide whether the beds d existed at the time of the intrusion of A, and alteration of b and c, or whether they were subsequently thrown down upon c. But as some Cretaceous and even Tertiary rocks have been raised to the height of more than 9000 feet in the Pyrenees, we must not assume that plutonic formations of the same periods may not have been brought up and exposed by denudation, at the height of 2000 or 3000 feet on the flanks of that chain.