The Story of Majorca and Minorca

by Sir Clements R. Markham

Muntaner says truly that Manfred was one of the most valiant kings in the world. He assembled his army and met the invading host under Charles of Anjou near the frontier of his dominions. The battle raged fiercely, and Manfred would have been victorious had not bribes, applied with the help of the treasure of the Church, turned the scale. There was treachery. The gallant King was slain, his army was scattered, and the Pope’s protégé was enabled to occupy Naples and overrun Sicily, which was occupied by the licentious soldiery of Charles of Anjou. The papal nominee used his success with unrelenting cruelty. The wife and children of Manfred were shut up in a dungeon. Conradin, the nephew and heir, came from Germany with a small force, but was defeated and taken prisoner. Charles caused him to be beheaded at Naples, and, as is well known, the young prince, when on the scaffold, threw his glove into the crowd, praying that some one would take it to King Pedro of Aragon, who would avenge his wrongs.

Pedro III. took up Conradin’s glove to some purpose. His death was the last success of Charles of Anjou. The Pope had cursed the family of the good Emperor. Never did curses more persistently come home to roost.

The Catalans were fast becoming an important naval power in the Mediterranean, and their King fostered its growth with care. He established arsenals and dockyards at Barcelona, Tortosa, Cullera, and Valencia, and ordered smaller yards to be formed at every port where there was anchorage for his galleys. Cullera and Tortosa were his principal dockyards. The men were so well trained, the galleys and arms were kept in such a state of efficiency, that Pedro was well able to take up Conradin’s glove and to avenge the death of Manfred, the father of his beloved wife Constance.

The call soon came. The King of Aragon was moved to anger when he heard of the death of his father-in-law and of young Conradin. Before taking any steps against the usurper, he thought it well to secure himself from attacks on the side of France. His brother of Majorca was also anxious for his Continental dominions. St. Louis of France had been succeeded in 1270 by his son Philip le Hardi, who had married Pedro’s sister. An interview was arranged between the Kings of France, Aragon, and Majorca at Toulouse. The negotiation which followed was so far satisfactory that Philip solemnly swore never to interfere in the affairs of Montpellier, and professed warm friendship for both the Aragonese Kings.

At this juncture the tyranny of the French led to the ‘Sicilian Vespers.’ The people rose throughout Sicily while Charles of Anjou prepared to wreak vengeance upon them, collecting a large army and fleet. The Sicilians turned to the King of Aragon, whose wife was the heir to their King, for help in their sore need, and their appeal was not in vain. He was engaged in some successful operations on the coast of Barbary, with a large, well-appointed fleet, when the message reached him. Pedro did not hesitate. He would take up Conradin’s glove and defend the right. With a fair wind, he caused his fleet to shape a course for Sicily.

The King of Aragon landed at Trapani on August 28, 1282. The whole population of Sicily was overjoyed. The march from Trapani to Palermo was a triumphal procession. Pedro was crowned King of Sicily at Palermo, and immediately afterwards he marched to Messina, to resist any attempt to invade the island on the part of the French forces of Charles of Anjou.

Charles arrived before Messina with his army, where he received envoys from the King of Aragon. They told him, in the name of their master, that he was a usurper; that he knew well that he had no right to the kingdom, which belonged to the Queen of Aragon and her sons as heirs of King Manfred, and demanded that he should leave it. Charles replied defiantly, and Pedro, calling all the able-bodied men of Sicily to arms, prepared to advance to Messina and attack the usurper, who was besieging the town, by sea and land.

It is here necessary to give some account of a peculiar body of light infantry which formed an important part of the Aragonese army, and was now destined to take a very active lead in sending the Pope’s curses home to roost.

The origin of these troops, called Almogavares, is said by Desclot and others to be as follows: After Spain was overrun by the Arabs, many of the fugitive inhabitants took refuge in fastnesses of the mountains, whence they made incursions into the open country, their necessities obliging them to make no distinction between friends and enemies. In course of time these outlaws were organised into tribes, and generations of men who were always leading lives of danger and hardship produced a race of most formidable fighting soldiers. The Kings of Aragon transformed these fierce wanderers into a new military organisation. They became fanatically loyal troops, while retaining their old customs and habits. They were divided into companies, each under a captain, named almogadan. They also had officers named adalid,[7] who were guides for the routes, and who also had authority to judge of what occurred in the forays, and to divide the spoils. The dress of an almogarave consisted of a smock, breeches, leather gaiters, hide sandals called abarcas, a sort of knapsack on the back to hold a day’s food, and a belt round the waist with a dagger, and a small bag containing flint and steel. The almogarave never shaved and never cut his hair, which was confined in a net. His arms were a short lance and a few darts slung on his back. In an ambush or night-attack they first made innumerable sparks with their flints and steels in all directions, then rushed furiously upon their enemy with the war-cry of ‘Desparte ferres!’[8] and shouts of ‘Al mugabar.’ This word may be allied to the Hebrew ‘muhavar,’ which means a companion.

The almogavares were an exceedingly formidable body of light infantry. Pedro sent 2,000 to Messina by forced marches, while he followed with the main strength of his army. Arriving at Messina, they were received into the town, but the inhabitants were in despair at their ragged and wild appearance, and feared that men like these could never cope with the soldiers of Charles. Their answer was, ‘We will show you what we are like’; and at dawn they sallied out of Messina and attacked the besieging army with such fury that it was thrown into confusion. Charles of Anjou thought the whole Aragonese army was upon him. He hastily ordered his troops to embark, and fled to the opposite coast; but his rearguard was cut to pieces and all his baggage was captured. The galleys of Aragon then attacked the usurper’s fleet off Nicotera, capturing many vessels and driving the rest on shore. A body of almogavares was next taken over to the coast of Apulia, where they defeated a French force at Catona, the Comte d’Alençon, brother of the King of France, being among the slain. Thus was Sicily permanently delivered from the yoke of Charles of Anjou, and restored to its rightful heir, the daughter of Manfred. King Pedro himself crossed the Strait of Messina and captured several towns in Apulia, including Reggio.