Garden Cities of To-Morrow / Being the Second Edition of 'To-Morrow: a Peaceful Path to Real Reform' - Sir Ebenezer Howard

Proposals for the reconstruction of London have already been projected. In 1883 the late Mr. William Westgarth offered the Society of Arts the sum of £1,200 to be awarded in prizes for essays on the best means of providing dwellings for the London poor, and on the reconstruction of Central London—an offer which brought forward several schemes of some boldness.[31] More recently a book by Mr. Arthur Cawston, entitled “A Comprehensive Scheme for Street Improvements in London,” was published by Stanford, which contains in its introduction the following striking passage:—“The literature relating to London, extensive as it is, contains no work which aims at the solution of one problem of vast interest to Londoners. They are beginning to realise, partly by their more and more extensive travels, and partly through their American and foreign critics, that the gigantic growth of their capital, without the controlling guidance of a municipality, has resulted in not only the biggest, but in probably the most irregular, inconvenient, and unmethodical collection of houses in the world. A comprehensive plan for the transformation of Paris has been gradually developed since 1848; slums have disappeared from Berlin since 1870; eighty-eight acres in the centre of Glasgow have been remodelled; Birmingham has transformed ninety-three acres of squalid slums into magnificent streets flanked by architectural buildings; Vienna, having completed her stately outer ring, is about to remodel her inner city: and the aim of the writer is to show, by example and illustration, in what way the means successfully employed for improving these cities can be best adapted to the needs of London.”

The time for the complete reconstruction of London—which will eventually take place on a far more comprehensive scale than that now exhibited in Paris, Berlin, Glasgow, Birmingham, or Vienna—has, however, not yet come. A simpler problem must first be solved. One small Garden City must be built as a working model, and then a group of cities such as that dealt with in the last chapter. These tasks done, and done well, the reconstruction of London must inevitably follow, and the power of vested interests to block the way will have been almost, if not entirely, removed.

Let us, therefore, first bend all our energies to the smaller of these tasks, thinking only of the larger tasks which lie beyond as incentives to a determined line of immediate action, and as a means of realising the great value of little things if done in the right manner and in the right spirit.

THE END.

INDEX

A
Act of Parliament for enforcement of rates unnecessary, [66]
(See [Parliament].)
Adelaide, [129]
Administration, Chapters vi., vii., viii.;
effects of dissatisfaction with, not greater than in any other municipality, [99]
Agricultural Land, its low value compared with city land, [28];
its probable future rise in value, [136]
Allen’s, Mr. Grant, Description of London, [148]
Allotments, their favourable situations, [33]
Appropriation of wealth-forms advocated by Socialists, [117];
a new creation of urged as a counter programme, [122]
B
Bakeries, [82]
Balfour, Right Hon. A. J., real question for working classes is one of production, not of division, [116]
Baker, Sir Benj., Sewerage of London, [32];
London Railways, [131]
Banks, Penny, precursors of Post Office Banks, [88];
Pro-Municipal, [88]
Barwise, Dr., Water famine in Derbyshire, [17]
Binnie, Sir Alexander, Sewerage of London, [32]
Birmingham, profits on gas, [67]
Blake’s resolve, [20]
Boffin, Mr. and Mrs., [70]
Bruce, Lord, Liquor Traffic, [10]
Buckingham, J. S., his scheme combined with others, [110]
Building lots, number and size, [39];
estimated rents, [41]
— Societies, a field for, [89]
Burns, Mr. J., M.P., L.C.C., [89]
C
Cadbury, George, and temperance, [85]
Capital, How raised, [20], [43];
security for, [63], [64]
(See “[Wealth Forms] and Vested Interests.”)
Cawston, Arthur, Scheme for London improvement, [149]
Central Council, Its Rights, powers, and duties, [71];
delegation of its powers, [72];
how constituted, [74]
Chamberlain, Right Hon. Joseph, Limits of Municipal activity, [68]
Charitable Institutions, [27], [65]
Chester, Bishop of, Temperance, [85]
Children and water famine, [17];
nearness to schools, [48]
China, Alleged effects of opium, [10]
Churches, [24], [39]
Circle Railway, [25];
cost of, [58], [60];
Railway and Canal Traffic Act (1894), [60]
Cities, Alarming growth of, [11];
true mode of growth, [51], [128]
Clifford, on growth of railways, [127]
Cobbett, on London, [11]
Common ownership of land, how brought about, [21], [124]
Communism, Difficulties of, [95-6]
Compensation for improvements, [34]
Competition, Rents fixed by, [21];
as test of systems, [26], [74];
effect on prices, [80]
Consumers’ League, [83]
Co-operative farms, [25]
— kitchens, [24]
— organisation and disorganisation, [90]
— stores, [82]
— principle, ample scope for growth of, [27], [70], [84]
Country, depopulation of, [11]
Country life and town life contrasted and combined, [15], [19]
County Councils, Larger powers for, [134]
Cow pastures, [25]
Cricket fields, [63]
Crystal Palace, [23], [77]
D
Daily Chronicle. Cost of re-housing, [53]
Daily News. Life in our villages, [12]
Debentures A, Rate of interest and how secured, [20], [21]
— B, Rate of interest and how secured, [43], [63]
Departments, The, [73]
Distribution, A more just, of wealth, combined with greater production, [117]
E
Electricity, profit on, in Manchester, [67]
Electric light, [25], [31]
Estimates, [58]
F
Factories, [25];
diagram, [3];
estimated rents, [41]
Failures foundation of success, [94];
causes of former considered, chap. ix.
Fairman, Frank, Poor cannot be raised without depressing rich, [116]
Farquharson, Dr., on rings of middlemen, [32]
Farrar, Dean, Growth of cities, [11]
Fields, farms, and workshops, Krapotkin, [31]
Floods and water famine, [17]
Force without, compared with impulse within, [138]
Freedom. (See [Liberty].)
G
George, Henry, All blame on landlords, [124]
Gorst, Sir John, on growth of cities, [11], [19]
Grand Arcade. (See [Crystal Palace] and [Local Option].)
— Avenue, [24], [39], [40]
Green, J. R., on sudden changes, [9]
Ground rents 1s. 1d. per head, [39];
how applied, [40]
H
Hawthorne. Human nature, like a potato, requires transplanting, [126]
Hobson. Physiology of industry, [91]
Hyndman, Mr., Views of, [119]
I
Increment of land value secured by migrants, [29]
Individual taste encouraged, [24]
Individualism, an excellent principle, but should be associated with co-operation, [96];
thus carrying out principle advocated by Lord Rosebery, [117];
society may become more Individualistic and more Socialistic, [116]
Industry, Redistribution of, [142]
Inspection, [24]
Insurance against accident or sickness, [28]
Interest. (See [Debentures].)
Isolated efforts, necessity for, [95]
Issues, distinct, raised at election times, [75]
J
Jerusalem, Blake’s Resolution, [20]
K
Kidd, Mr. Benj., on antagonism between interests of society and of individual, [117]
Krapotkin, Prince, Fields, farms, and workshops, [31]
L
Labour leaders, a programme for, [90]
— saving machinery, object lesson in, [55]
Land compared with other wealth forms, [118], [122]
Landlord, Average man a potential, [124];
landlords will become divided into two camps, [135], [136];
their Nemesis, [147]
Landlord’s rent, meaning of term, [35];
insignificant amount in Garden City, [39]
Land system may be attacked without attacking individuals, [28], [124], [135]
Large farms, [25]
Laundries, [82]
Lawn tennis courts, [63]
Leases contain favourable covenants, [40]
Liberty, Principles of, fully observed, [26], [87], [96], [112], [141]
Library Public, [22];
diagram, [3];
cost, [58], [62]
Lighting, [25], [26], [66]
Local option and shopping, [77];
its effects on prices, quality, and wages, [80];
it diminishes risks, [80];
reduces working expenses, [82];
checks sweating, [83];
application to liquor traffic, [84]
Local Self-government, Problem of, solved, [72]
London, Growth of, Lord Rosebery on, [11];
high rents, [28], [144];
their impending fall, [144];
sewerage system “unalterably settled,” [33];
area too small for its population, [38];
growth chaotic, [52];
Garden City contrasted with, [51];
cost of its school sites and buildings compared with Garden City, [48];
cost of dwellings contrasted, [53], [54];
excessive number of shops, [81];
want of railroad system, [131];
contrast with Garden City’s system, [130];
its future, chap. xiii.;
its continued growth generally anticipated, [142];
this leads to mistaken policy of London County Council, [143];
its large debt and small assets, [144], [145];
simultaneous fall of ground values and rise of rates as the withdrawal of population makes debt per head larger, [145];
cost of moving to and from work ever increasing, [146];
comparison with Garden City in this respect; slum property falls to zero, [146];
transformation of London, [147];
London on strike against its landlords, [148];
the “squalid village,” unless entirely reconstructed, will become deserted, [148];
proposals for reconstruction of, [149]
M
Machinery, [55]
Madgen, Mr. W. L., on Industrial Redistribution, [142]
Magnets, The Three, [16]
Management expenses, [62]
Manchester, profit on electricity, [67]
Mann, Tom, on the depopulation of the country, [13]
Manufacturers, choice of workmen, [77]
Markets, [76];
town forms a natural market for farmers, [22], [26]
Marshall, Professor, on London overcrowding, [38];
on organised migration, [104]
Marshall, A. and M. P., on excessive number of shops in London, [81]
Master-Key, [13]
“Merrie England,” inconsistency of its proposals, [120]
Mexico experiment, [98]
Middlemen, their number reduced, [32]
Migration, organised, secures, (a) combined advantages of town and country, chapters i., ii., iii., etc.;
(b) full increment of land values for migrants, [29];
(c) saving of compensation in respect of business disturbance, [47], [53];
(d) large reduction in railway rates, [32], [51];
(e) the advantages and economies of a well-planned city, [51];
(f) a splendid system of water supply within its own territory;
(g) proximity of workers to work, [54];
(h) a greater extent of local self-government, [72];
(i) plenty of space and avoids overcrowding, [88];
(j) opportunities for economic use of money, [92];
(k) a way of escape from present municipal obligations, [144];
(l) a field of work for unemployed, [93];
is advocated by Wakefield, [102];
by Professor Marshall, [104]
Milk, saving effected in the case of, [32]
Mill, J. S., his endorsement of Wakefield, [104];
on the ephemeral nature of wealth, [118]
Misgovernment, check upon, [71]
Money not consumed by being spent, [91];
importance of dispensing with its unnecessary use, [92];
set free from its enchantment, [93]
Monopoly, no rigid, [27];
evils of may be avoided in the case of shops, and advantages of competition secured, [79]
Morley, Right Hon. J., on Temperance, [10];
on the gradual adoption of new ideas, [86]
Mummery and Hobson, “Physiology of Industry,” [91]
Municipal enterprise, growth of, how determined, [27], [70];
its limits, [69], [70];
at present small range compared with private, [99]
N
Nationalisation must be preceded by humbler tasks, [89]
Neale, Mr. V., on excessive number of shops in London, [81]
Need, An urgent, [114]
Nunquam. (See [Merrie England].)
O
Old age pensions. (See [Pensions].)
Order and freedom, reconciliation of, [141], [142]
Over-crowding prevented, [88]
Owen, A. K., Experiment of, [98]
P
Parks and gardens, [22], [24], [39];
cost of, [62]
Parliamentary powers unnecessary in the early stages of railway enterprise, but requisite later;
so in relation to the reform initiated by proposed experiment, [126], [134]
Pensions, [28], [65]
Petavel, Capt., [61]
Philanthropic institutions, [27], [65], [66]
Plan, importance of in building cities, [51]
Playgrounds. (See [Parks].)
Police, [66]
Poor law administration, [66]
Power, [25]
Prices raised to producer, diminished to consumer, [32], [141]
Private and public enterprise. (See [Municipal].)
Production, Right Hon. A. J. Balfour on necessity of increased production, [116];
increased production secured and distribution rendered more just, [116]
Pro-Municipal enterprise, chap. viii.
Public-houses. (See [Temperance].)
Public-houses, Trust, [85]
R
Railways, their rapid growth, [127];
a carefully planned system of, [130];
chaos in London, [131];
construction of railway system was “a large order;”
a larger one remains to be executed, [139], [140]
Railway rates, reduction in, [32], [51], [60], [141]
“Rate rent,” meaning of term, [34], [35];
revenue raised entirely by rate-rents, which are fixed by competition, [21], [26], [28], [73];
tenants in occupation have some preference, [34];
assessed by a committee, [73];
estimate of, from agricultural estate, chap. ii.;
from town estate, chap. iii.;
what these suffice to do, chap. iv. and v.
Rates levied by outside bodies, provision for, [58], [65]
Recreation, boating, bathing, etc. (See [Parks].)
Rents, computation of, in England and Wales, [30]
“Revolution, The Coming,” [31]
Revolution, Social, at hand, [134]
Rhodes, Dr., on growth of cities, [12]
Risk of shopkeepers, [80]
Roads, cost of maintenance small, [25];
estimated cost, [59]
Rosebery, Lord, compares London to a tumour, [11];
on borrowing from Individualism and Socialism, [117]
Ruskin, Mr. J., [20]
S
Sanitation, [24]
St. James Gazette on dangerous growth of cities, [12]
Schools, sites for, [24];
comparison with London, [47];
estimated cost of buildings and maintenance, [58], [61]
Semi-municipal industry, meaning of term, [76]
Sewage, [25];
cost of system, [58];
difficulties in London, [32]
Shaw-Lefevre, Right Hon. G. J., on chaotic growth of London, [52]
Shops, factories, etc., estimated rents from, [41];
excess of in London, [81];
multiplication of prevented, [78];
risk of shop-keepers reduced, [80]
(See [Local Option] and [Crystal Palace].)
Sinking fund for land, [21], [28], [34], [42];
for works, [58], [65]
Slum property declines to zero, [146];
is destroyed and sites converted into parks, [146]
Small holdings, [25]
Smoke, absence of, [25]
Social cities, chap. xii.
Socialism, does not represent a basis on which an experiment can safely proceed, [97];
inconsistency of Socialistic writers, [118];
their neglect of the land question, [123];
their threats little heeded, [135];
and their efforts meet with little success, [137]
Spence, scheme of common land administered by parish, [106];
the difference between this and my own chiefly one of method, [107]
Spencer, Herbert, advocated common land administered by State, [107];
his reasons for withdrawing his proposals, (a) evils attending State control, [108];
(but my scheme, like Spence’s, free from these evils, [109]);
(b) difficulty of acquiring land on equitable terms, and of yet making it remunerative to purchasers, [108];
(this difficulty completely overcome in my proposals, [109]);
the “dictum of absolute ethics” that all men are equally entitled to the use of the earth practically realised under my scheme, [110];
his objection on principle to State control rebuked out of his own mouth, [109]
Star, The, on depopulation of country, [12]
Strand to Holborn, new street, [52]
Strikes, the true and the false, [90];
of London against landlordism, [148]
Subways, growing need for, [54];
their economy, [59]
Sweating, opportunity for public conscience to express itself, against, [83]
T
Temperance, Right Hon. John Morley on, [10];
Lord Bruce on, [10];
experiment may lead to temperance reform, [84]
The Times on sudden changes, [9]
— Three Magnets, Diagram [1], [16]
Tillett, Mr. Ben, on depopulation of country, [12]
Topolobampo experiment, [98]
Town life and country life contrasted and combined, [16-19]
Tramways, [66], [131]
Trees, [23], [39], [63]
U
“Unearned increment” a misnomer, [29]
V
Variety in architecture, [24];
in cultivation of soil, [25];
in employments, [111]
Vested Interests, indirectly threatened, become divided, [135];
the same thing has occurred before, [135];
vested interests of skill, labour, energy, talent, and industry, the most important of all vested interests consolidated by the same force which divides the vested interests of land and capital in twain, [138]
Villages, Depopulation of. (See [Country].)
W
Wages, Effect of competition upon, [81]
Wakefield, Art of Colonisation, [102];
J. S. Mill’s view of it, [104]
War, implements of, drop down, [140]
Ward, Mrs. Humphrey, all changes preceded by sporadic efforts, [94]
Wards, town divided into by boulevards, [22];
each ward in a sense a complete town, [45];
work on one practically complete before commencing on another, [45]
Waste products, utilisation of, [33]
Water, scarcity of in country, [17]
Water-supply usually a source of revenue, [66]
Wealth-forms for the most part extremely ephemeral, [118];
J. S. Mill on, [118]
Wells, Mr. H. G. on future growth of London, [142]
Westgarth, Mr. William, prizes for essays on reconstruction of London, [149]
Wilson, P. W., on the distribution of industry, [142]
Winter Garden. (See [Crystal Palace].)
Women may fill all offices in municipality, [75]
Work, plenty of, [55], [88], [122], [130], [147]
Workmen’s trains, [148]