Bacteria / Especially as they are related to the economy of nature, to industrial processes, and to the public health

by Sir George Newman

These facts being established, the question naturally arises, How is the fixation of nitrogen to be explained, and by what species of bacteria is it performed? In the first place, these matters are simplified by the fact that there is very little fixation indeed by bacteria in the soil apart from symbiosis with higher plants. Hence we have to deal mainly with the work of bacteria in the higher plant. Sir Henry Gilbert concludes[47] that the alternative explanations of the fixation of free nitrogen in the growth of Leguminosæ seem to be:

"1. That under the conditions of symbiosis the plant is enabled to fix the free nitrogen of the atmosphere by its leaves;

"2. That the nodule organisms become distributed within the soil and there fix free nitrogen, the resulting nitrogenous compounds becoming available as a source of nitrogen to the roots of the higher plant;

"3. That free nitrogen is fixed in the course of the development of the organisms within the nodules, and that the resulting nitrogenous compounds are absorbed and utilized by the host." "Certainly," he adds, "the balance of evidence at present at command is much in favour of the third mode of explanation."

If this is finally proved to be the case, it will furnish another excellent example of the power existing in bacteria of assimilating an elementary substance.

Most authorities would agree that all absorption of free nitrogen, if by means of bacteria, must be through the roots. As a matter of fact, legumes, especially when young, use nitrogen, like all other plants, derived from the soil. It has been pointed out that, unless the soil is somewhat poor in nitrogen, there appears to be but little assimilation of free nitrogen and but a poor development of root nodules.[48] The free nitrogen made use of by the micro-organism is in the air contained in the interstices of the soil. For in all soils, but especially in well-drained and light soils, there is a large quantity of air. Although it is not known how the micro-organisms in legumes utilise free nitrogen and convert it into organic compounds in the tissues of the rootlet or plant, it is known that such nitrogen compounds migrate into the stem and leaves, and so make the roots really poorer in nitrogen than the foliage. But the ratio is a fluctuating one, depending chiefly on the stage of growth or maturity of the plant.

If the nodules from the rootlets of Leguminosæ be examined, the nitrogen-fixing bacteria can be readily seen. The writer has isolated these and grown them in pure culture as follows: The nodules are removed, if possible at an early stage in their growth, and placed for a few minutes in a steam steriliser. This is advisable in order to remove the various extraneous organisms attached to the outer covering of the nodule. They may then be washed in antiseptic solution, and their capsules softened by soaking. When opened with a sterile knife, thick creamy matter exudes. On microscopic examination this is found to be densely crowded with small round-ended bacilli or oval bodies, known as bacteroids. By a simple process of hardening and using the microtome, excellent sections of the nodules can be obtained which show these bacteria in situ. In the central parts of the section may be seen densely crowded colonies of the bacteria, which in some cases invade the cellular capsule of the nodule derived from the rootlet. Aërobic and anaërobic pure cultures of these bacteria were made. In some cases these cultures very closely resembled the feathery growth of the bacillus of anthrax.

4. The Saprophytic Bacteria in Soil. This group of micro-organisms is by far the most abundant as regards number. They live on the dead organic matter of the soil, and their function appears to be to break it down into simpler constitution. Specialisation is probably progressing among them, for their name is legion, and the struggle for existence keen. After we have eliminated the economic bacteria, most of which are obviously saprophytes, the group is greatly reduced. It is also needless to add that of the remnant little beyond morphology is known, for as their function is learned they are classified otherwise. It is probable, as suggested, that many of the species of common saprophytes normally existent in the soil act as auxiliary agents to denitrification and putrefaction. At present we fear they are disregarded in equal measure, and for the same reasons, as the common water bacteria. An excess of either, in soil or water, is not of itself injurious as far as we know; indeed, it is probably just the reverse. It is, however, frequently an index of value as to the amount and sometimes condition of the contained organic matter. The remarks made when considering water bacteria apply here also, viz., that an excess of saprophytes acts not only as index of increase of organic matter, but as at first auxiliary, and then detrimental, to pathogenic organisms. It will require accurate knowledge of soil bacteria generally to be able to say which saprophytic germs, if any, have no definite function beyond their own existence. It may be doubted whether the stern behests of nature permit of such organisms. However that may be, we may feel confident, though at present there are many common bacteria in soil, as also in water, the life object of which is not ascertained, that as knowledge increases and becomes more accurate this special provisional group will become gradually absorbed into other groups having a part in the economy of nature, or in the production of disease. At present the decomposition, denitrifying, nitrifying,[49] and nitrogen-fixing organisms are the only saprophytes which have been rescued from the oblivion of ages, and brought more or less into daylight. It is but our lack of knowledge which requires the present division of saprophytes whose business and place in the world is unknown.

5. The Pathogenic Organisms found in Soil. In addition to these saprophytes and the economic bacteria, there are, as is now well known, some disease-producing bacteria finding their nidus in ordinary soil. The three chief members of this group are the bacillus of Tetanus (lockjaw), the bacillus of Quarter Evil, and the bacillus of Malignant Œdema.

Tetanus. The pathology of this terrible disease has during recent years been considerably elucidated. It was the custom to look upon it as "spontaneous," and arising no one knew how; now, however, after the experiments of Sternberg and Nicolaier, the disease is known to be due to a micro-organism common in the soil of certain localities, existing there either as a bacillus or in a resting stage of spores. Fortunately Tetanus is comparatively rare, and one of the peculiar biological characteristics of the bacillus is that it grows only in the absence of oxygen. This fact contributed not a little to the difficulties which were met with in securing its isolation.