The most direct political[political] inconvenience of excessive luxury, is, the loss of foreign trade. The more indirect follow as consequences of those already described; because they may render those employed in the service of the state, negligent and unfit, rapacious and corrupt, but these evils are more properly the direct effects of the imperfections of the mind, than consequences resulting naturally from excess in the consumption of superfluity. They ought, therefore, to be considered as secondary effects, since they may proceed from avarice as well as prodigality. The correcting of political vices resembles the weeding a bed of tender flowers, the roots are all blended together, and the leaves are almost alike. It is proper, therefore, to have both the discernment and dexterity of a good gardner for such an operation.
Chap. XXI. From luxury I pass to the physical-necessary, which I define from the consumption implied by it: a man has his physical-necessary when he is fed, clothed, and protected from harm. But as these enjoyments, we find, do by no means satisfy his desires, I am led to establish another necessary which I call political. This I measure also by the consumption implied by it, to wit, that which is suitable to the rank of the person.
Rank again is determined by the common opinion of men, and this opinion is founded upon circumstances, which relate to the birth, education, or habits of the person. When common opinion has placed any one in a certain rank, he becomes entitled to enjoy certain articles of physical-superfluity, which enter into the composition[composition] of his political-necessary: thus, such as are raised above the level of the very lowest class of inhabitants, are entitled to have a Sunday’s dress; the farmer has a better coat than a labouring servant; the priest of the parish must have a gown; the magistrate of a little town must have ruffles, perhaps silk stockings; a provost a velvet coat, and a lord mayor a state coach; these and such like articles constitute what I call the political-necessary.
A man’s rank sometimes obliges him to certain articles of expence, which may possibly affect even his physical-necessary. How frequently do we see people cover their shoulders, at the expence of their belly. The competition between the desires of our mind, and those which proceed from our animal oeconomy is so strong, that it is frequently hard to determine, whether the incapacity to supply our physical wants, proceeds from our having too far gratified our other desires, or from real poverty.
The lowest classes of a people, in a country of trade, must be restrained to their physical-necessary; but this restraint must be brought about, not by oppression, but by the effects of competition alone. While this is supported among people of the same class, it has the effect to reduce them all to the physical-necessary, and when it reduces them lower it is a vice, and ought to be checked. A peculiar ingenuity in some workmen of the same class, will raise them above this level; and the more they can raise themselves above competition, the greater will their gains be. By becoming masters in any art, they share the profits of those whom they employ; and thus rise in rank and fortune, provided their frugality concur with every other natural or acquired advantage. It is therefore a principle, to encourage competition universally, until it has had the effect to reduce people of industry to the physical-necessary, and to prevent it ever from bringing them lower: from this results the necessity of applying every expedient for relieving certain classes of the load of their children, if you incline they should breed; and of preventing taxes and other burthens from affecting them unequally.
Chap. XXII. I now come to treat directly of inland commerce, as taking place upon the extinction of foreign trade, when all attempts to recover it are found to be vain. In such a situation, a wealthy nation is not to consider itself as undone: an able statesman must know how to make his people happy in every situation. It is an universal principle of conduct, private and political, to look forward, and to improve the present from the experience of the past. One great inconvenience resulting from a foreign trade already lost, is, that there is no farther question of making any new acquisition of wealth, or of replacing one farthing of what at any time may be sent out of the country. But the greatest inconveniencies are felt in the losing such a trade: these are numberless, when an able statesman is not at hand to prevent them.
That I may point them out in order, I make a short recapitulation of our principles: the slightest hint is sufficient to shew their force; and when my reader is sensible of a repetition, which he finds superfluous, let him reflect that this very circumstance is proof of their exactness. In this science we must use our principles as a carpenter uses his foot-rule; there is nothing new to him in this instrument; but still he must have it in his hand, to be able to know any thing, with accuracy, concerning his work.
In this chapter I throw in a short dissertation upon the difference between antient and modern luxury. Their natures and effects are briefly insisted on. I point out the resemblance between the luxury of modern times, and that of the few great trading cities of antiquity; such as Tyre and Carthage; and I shew in what respect it differed from that luxury which proved the downfall of the empires of Asia and Rome.
When empires were once formed, they were ruined by luxury, and preserved by means of their wars: because these made their wealth circulate.
When the trading states took a military turn, and became ambitious of conquest, their ruin soon followed: because war destroyed the industry which made their greatness.