On the Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects

by Sir John Lubbock

In the next three orders—namely, the Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, walking-stick insects, cockroaches, &c.), Euplexoptera (earwigs), and Thysanoptera, a small group of insects well known to gardeners under the name of Thrips (Pl. [I.] and [II.], Figs. [1 and 2])—the larvæ when they quit the egg already much resemble the mature form, differing, in fact, principally in the absence of wings, which are more or less gradually acquired, as the insect increases in size. They are active throughout life. Those specimens which have rudimentary wings are, however, usually called pupæ.

The Neuroptera present, perhaps, more differences in the character of their metamorphoses than any other order of insects. Their larvæ are generally active, hexapod little creatures, and do not vary from one another in appearance so much, for instance, as those of the Coleoptera, but their pupæ differ essentially; some groups, namely, the Psocidæ, Termitidæ, Libellulidæ, Ephemeridæ, and Perlidæ, remaining active throughout life, like the Orthoptera; while a second division, including the Myrmeleonidæ, Hemerobiidæ, Sialidæ, Panorpidæ, Raphidiidæ, and Mantispidæ, have quiescent pupæ, which, however, in some cases, acquire more or less power of locomotion shortly before they assume the mature state; thus that of Raphidia, though motionless at first, at length acquires strength enough to walk, even while still enclosed in the pupa skin, which is very thin.[10]

One of the most remarkable families belonging to this order is that of the Termites, or white ants. They abound in the tropics, where they are a perfect pest, and a serious impediment to human development. Their colonies are extremely numerous, and they attack woodwork and furniture of all kinds, generally working from within, so that their presence is often unsuspected, until it is suddenly found that they have completely eaten away the interior of some post or table, leaving nothing but a thin outer shell. Their nests, which are made of earth, are sometimes ten or twelve feet high, and strong enough to bear a man. One species, Termes lucifugus, is found in the South of France, where it has been carefully studied by Latreille. He found in these communities five kinds of individuals—(1) males; (2) females, which grow to a very large size, their bodies being distended with eggs, of which they sometimes lay as many as 80,000 in a day; (3) a form described by some observers as Pupæ, but by others as neuters. These differ very much from the others, having a long, soft body without wings, but with an immense head, and very large, strong jaws. These individuals act as soldiers, doing apparently no work, but keeping watch over the nest and attacking intruders with great boldness. (4) Apterous, eyeless individuals, somewhat resembling the winged ones, but with a larger and more rounded head; these constitute the greater part of the community, and, like the workers of ants and bees, perform all the labour, building the nest and collecting food. (5) Latreille mentions another kind of individual which he regards as the pupa, and which resembles the workers, but has four white tubercles on the back, where the wings afterwards make their appearance. There is still, however, much difference of opinion among entomologists, with reference to the true nature of these different classes of individuals. M. Lespès, who has recently studied the same species, describes a second kind of male and a second kind of female, and the subject, indeed, is one which offers a most promising field for future study.

Another interesting family of Neuroptera is that of the Ephemeræ, or Mayflies (Pl. [III.], Fig. 1), so well known to fishermen. The larvæ (Pl. [IV.], Fig. 1) are semi-transparent, active, six-legged little creatures, which live in water; having at first no gills, they respire through the general surface of the body. They grow rapidly and change their skin every few days. After one or two moults they acquire seven pairs of branchiæ, or gills, which are generally in the form of leaves, one pair to the segment. When the larvæ are about half grown, the posterior angles of the two posterior thoracic segments begin to elongate. These elongations become more and more marked with every change of skin. One morning, in the month of June, some years ago, I observed a full-grown larva, which had a glistening appearance, owing to the presence of a film of air under the skin. I put it under the microscope, and, having added a drop of water with a pipette, looked through the glass. To my astonishment, the insect was gone, and an empty skin only remained. I then caught a second specimen, in a similar condition, and put it under the microscope, hoping to see it come out. Nor was I disappointed. Very few moments had elapsed, when I had the satisfaction of seeing the thorax open along the middle of the back; the two sides turned over; the insect literally walked out of itself, unfolded its wings, and in an instant flew up to the window. Several times since, I have had the pleasure of witnessing this marvellous change, and it is really wonderful how rapidly it takes place: from the moment when the skin first cracks, not ten seconds are over before the insect has flown away.

Another family of Neuroptera, the Dragon-flies, or Horse-stingers, as they are sometimes called, from a mistaken idea that they sting severely enough to hurt a horse, though in fact they are quite harmless, also spend their early days in the water. The larvæ are brown, sluggish, ugly creatures, with six legs. They feed on small water-animals, for which they wait very patiently, either at the bottom of the water, or on some aquatic plant. The lower jaws are attached to a long folding rod; and when any unwary little creature approaches too near the larva, this apparatus is shot out with such velocity that the prey which comes within its reach seldom escapes. In their perfect condition, also, Dragon-flies feed on other insects, and may often be seen hawking round ponds. The so-called Ant-lions in many respects resemble the Dragon-flies, but the habits of the larvæ are very dissimilar. They do not live in the water, but prefer dry places, where they bury themselves in the loose sand, and seize with their long jaws any small insect which may pass. The true Ant-lion makes itself a round, shallow pit in loose ground or sand, and buries itself at the bottom. Any inattentive little insect which steps over the edge of this pit immediately falls to the bottom, and is instantaneously seized by the Ant-lion. Should the insect escape, and attempt to climb up the side of the pit, the Ant-lion is said to throw sand at it, knocking it down again.

One other family of Neuroptera which I must mention, is the Hemerobiidæ. The perfect insect is a beautiful, lace-winged, very delicate, green creature, something like a tender Dragon-fly, and with bright, green, touching eyes. The female deposits her eggs on leaves, not directly on the plant itself, but attached to it by a long white slender footstalk. The larva has six legs and powerful jaws, and makes itself very useful in destroying the Hop-fly.

The insects forming the order Trichoptera are well known in their larval condition, under the name of caddis worms. These larvæ are not altogether unlike caterpillars in form, but they live in water—which is the case with very few lepidopterous larvæ—and form for themselves cylindrical cases or tubes, built up of sand, little stones, bits of stick, leaves, or even shells. They generally feed on vegetable substances, but will also attack minute freshwater animals. When full grown, the larva fastens its case to a stone, the stem of a plant, or some other fixed substance, and closes the two ends with an open grating of silken threads, so as to admit the free access of water, while excluding enemies. It then turns into a pupa which bears some resemblance to the perfect insect, “except that the antennæ, palpi, wings, and legs are shorter, enclosed in separate sheaths, and arranged upon the breast.” The pupa remains quiet in the tube until nearly ready to emerge, when it comes to the surface, and in some cases creeps out of the water. It is not therefore so completely motionless as the pupæ of Lepidoptera.

The Diptera, or Flies, comprise insects with two wings only, the hinder pair being represented by minute club-shaped organs called “haltères.” Flies quit the egg generally in the form of fat, fleshy, legless grubs. They feed principally on decaying animal or vegetable matter, and are no doubt useful as scavengers. Other species, as the gadflies, deposit their eggs on the bodies of animals, within which the grubs feed, when hatched. The mouth is generally furnished with two hooks which serve instead of jaws. The pupæ of Diptera are of two kinds. In the true flies, the outer skin of the full-grown larva is not shed, but contracts and hardens, thus assuming the appearance of an oval brownish shell or case, within which the insect changes into a chrysalis. The pupæ of the gnats, on the contrary, have the limbs distinct and enclosed in sheaths. They are generally inactive, but some of the aquatic species continue to swim about.

One group of Flies, which is parasitic on horses, sheep, bats, and other animals, has been called the Pupipara, because it was supposed that they were not born until they had arrived at the condition of pupæ. They come into the world in the form of smooth, ovate bodies, much resembling ordinary dipterous pupæ, but as Leuckart has shown,[11] they are true, though abnormal, larvæ.

The next order, that of the Aphaniptera, is very small in number, containing only the different species of Flea. The larva is long, cylindrical, and legless; the chrysalis is motionless, and the perfect insect is too well known, at least, as regards its habits, to need any description.