History of Geography

by Sir John Scott Keltie; O. J. R. Howarth

The theory of evolution, as set forth by Charles Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace, Sir Joseph Hooker, and others in the middle of the nineteenth century, has clearly the closest relationship with the geographical theory of the control exercised by environment; it has become, indeed, its fundamental principle. Darwin accompanied the Beagle surveying expedition round the world in 1831–36, and his observations during the voyage qualified him for his life-work. Wallace’s study of the distribution of animals brings at once to the mind his line of demarcation between faunal regions passing through the Malay Archipelago. Hooker was prepared for his interest in plant geography by his voyage with Ross to the Antarctic, by his travels in northern India (1847–51), and other journeys of wide range. Such men were geographers though their fame does not name them so. The application of geographical method is either essential or at least valuable in every branch of natural science; in itself it fulfils functions which the other natural sciences, taken individually, do not, and that is its justification.

---

SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GEOGRAPHY

A general history of geography (mainly, however, concerned with exploration and mapping) is Vivien de Saint-Martin’s Histoire de la Géographie (Paris, 1873); a short historical review dealing more especially with geographical theory will be found in H. Wagner’s Lehrbuch der Geographie (Leipzig, 1900). No English parallels to these works are to be cited, but reference may be made to H. R. Mill’s International Geography (1897) and his article on “Geography” and E. G. Ravenstein’s on “Map” in the Encyclopædia Britannica (eleventh edition). On the earliest period see E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography (2 vols., London, 1879), and H. F. Tozer, History of Ancient Geography (1897), in the Cambridge Geographical Series; on the “dark age” and down to 1460, C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography (3 vols., London, 1897–1906); the sixteenth century is principally covered by the voluminous literature on Columbus, such as Sir C. R. Markham’s Life of Christopher Columbus (London, 1892), E. J. Payne’s History of the New World called America (Vol. I., Oxford, 1892); on the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, E. Heawood, Geographical Discovery in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge Geographical Series, 1912). Some of the earlier theoretical works have been cited in the text; a few modern works representative of the various departments of geography may be mentioned here. Those of which the prime purpose is description are represented by E. Reclus’s La Nouvelle Géographie Universelle (19 vols., Paris, 1876–95; there is an English translation) and by Stanford’s Compendium of Geography and Travel (various authors.) F. Ratzel, Anthropogeographie (2 vols., Stuttgart, c. 1891); Ellen C. Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment (London, 1911); E. Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde (translated as The Face of the Earth, Oxford, 1904); G. G. Chisholm, Manual of Commercial Geography (1890 and later editions); and volumes of the Cambridge Geographical Series already referred to may be taken as representative of various departments of geography of which an outline has been attempted in the last chapter of this book. A. R. Clarke’s Geodesy, the section of the article on “Map” in the Encyclopædia Britannica by the same writer, and Col. C. F. Close, for projections, and H. M. Wilson’s Topographic Surveying (New York and London, 1901) are to be referred to in the department of mathematical geography, but this subject has to be pursued mainly in official publications and scientific journals. For illustrations of cartographical method it is unnecessary in order to study the highest development of large-scale mapping to go beyond the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain and (particularly as illustrating the layer system of showing relief) the reduction therefrom by Bartholomew (Edinburgh), whose cartographical methods in such special scientific applications as meteorology, the distribution of population, etc., also render it unnecessary to consider sources other than English. But for best examples of the map-making art combined with the most careful use of existing data in the compilation of topographical atlases, such a work as Stieler’s Hand Atlas (Justus Perthes, Gotha) must be studied. There are examples of cartographical work from all periods in E. A. Reeves’s Maps and Map-making (London, Royal Geographical Society, 1910), a series of three lectures on the history and methods of surveying and cartography. Ancient methods may be studied in several facsimile atlases, such as A. E. Nordenskiöld’s (Stockholm, 1889). The student of oceanography must consult the “Narrative” of the Challenger expedition by Sir John Murray, forming two of the fifty volumes of the Report of that great undertaking. Special treatises on the subject are those by Otto Krümmel, Handbuch der Oceanographie; Murray and Hjört, The Depths of the Ocean; Fowler, Science of the Sea (elementary); Richard, L’Océanographie; Thoulet, L’Océan, ses Lois et ses Problèmes. On limnology (the study of lakes) see Forel’s Handbuch der Seenkunde.

INDEX

• Abruzzi, Duke of, [114], [126]
• Abu Zaid, [40]
• Abyssinia, [44], [54], [108], [110], [111]
• Adam of Bremen, [36]
• Adams, William, [71]
• Adare, Cape, [131]
• Adélie Land, [130], [133]
• Ægean civilisation, [4]
• Æschylus, [10]
• Afghanistan, [115]
• Africa, [5], [7], [13], [27], [31], [39], [50], [51], [53], [55], [57], [99], [113],[107–14]
• African Association, [108], [146]
• Agartharchides of Cnidus, [23]
• Agassiz, Alexander, [144]
• Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, [25]
• Alaska, [78]
• Albert Edward, Lake, [113]
• —— Nyanza, [111], [113]
• Alexander Island, [128]
• —— the Great, [20]
• Alfred the Great, [37]
• Alleghany Mts., [67]
• Almagro, Diego, [66]
• Al-Mamun, Caliph, [39]
• Alonzo, Martin, [59]
• Amazon, River, [62], [66], [67]
• America. See [North America], [South America]
• Amundsen, Capt Roald, [127], [133]
• Amur, River, [72]
• Anaximander, [9]
• Anaximenes, [9]
• Andrada, Antonio, [72]
• Andree, [137]
• Angelus, Jacobus, [54]
• Angola, [53]
• Antarctic regions, [81], [128–134]
• Antilles, [61]
• Antillia, [56], [58]
• Antipodes, [23], [36]
• Antœci, [23]
• Antonine Itinerary, [26]
• Apianus, Peter, [97], [99], [104]
• Arabia, [13], [73], [117]
• Arabs, [39]
• Arctic regions, [44], [74], [122]
• Aristagoras, [9]
• Aristotle, [19]
• Arkansas, [69]
• Arrowsmith, Aaron, [104]
• Asia, [9], [13], [20], [27], [39], [42], [71], [72]
• Asia Minor, [7], [8], [71]
• Astrolabe, [90]
• Atlantis, [18], [56]
• Australia, [69], [83], [85], [87], [89], [117–21]
• Avila, Gil Gonçalez de, [64]
• Azores, [50], [52]
• Azov, Sea of, [14], [30]
• Babbage, [120]
• Babylonia, [3]
• Bäcklund, O., [138]
• Bacon, Roger, [43]
• Baeyer, [77], [136]
• Baffin Bay, [123]
• —— Land, [77]
• ——, William, [77], [123]
• Bahr-el-Ghazal, [114]
• Baker, Samuel, [111]
• Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, [64]
• Balleny, John, [129]
• Baltic Sea, [21], [30], [41]
• Baluchistan, [115]
• Barents, William, [79]
• Barlæus, Kaspar, [84]
• Barrow, Pt., [123]
• ——, Sir John, [122]
• Barth, H., [109]
• Bartholomew, John, [138]
• Bass, George, [117]
• —— Strait, [117]
• Batavia, [87]
• Beatus, [39]
• Beaufort Sea, [128]
• Beaumont, Elie de, [139]
• Bede, the Venerable, [36]
• Behaim, Martin, [57]
• Behm, [137]
• Bellingshausen, Fabian von, [89], [128]
• Bengal, [104]
• Benin, Bight of, [6]
• Bent, J. T., [117]
• Berghaus, H., [137]
• Bering Strait, [80], [122]
• ——, Vitus, [80]
• Berlinghieri, Francesco, [55]
• Bertrand, M., [139]
• Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm, [136]
• Best, Capt., [71]
• Bianco, Andrea, [56]
• Bienewitz, Philip, [102]
• Biogeography, [140]
• Biscoe Is., [129]
• ——, John, [129]
• Blache, Vidal de la, [138]
• Black Sea, [14], [30], [49]
• Blue Nile, [103]
• Blunt, Wilfrid, [117]
• Bonvalot, [116]
• Borchgrevink, C. E., [131]
• Bornu, [109]
• Borough, Stephen, [79]
• Borysthenes, River, [14]
• Bougainville, Louis Antoine de, [85]
• Bouguer, Pierre, [96]
• Bouvet Is., [86], [131]
• ——, Lozier, [86]
• Bower, Hamilton, [116]
• Boyle, George, [73]
• Brahmaputra, River, [115]
• Brazil, [56], [60], [62], [66], [82]
• Britain, [5], [6], [21], [30], [37], [118]
• Brooke, J. M., [142]
• Bruce, James, [108]
• ——, W. S., [132]
• Brunel, Olivier, [79]
• Buache, P., [101]
• Buchanan, T. Y., [143]
• Burckhardt, J. L., [117]
• Burke, Robert, [121]
• Burroughs, Christopher, [71]
• Burrus, [101]
• Burton, R. F., [110], [117]
• Button, Sir Thomas, [77]
• Byron, John, [85]
• Cabot, John, [61], [75]
• ——, Sebastian, [79]
• Cabral, [62]
• Cadamosto, Aloise, [52]
• Cæsar, Julius, [24]
• Caillié, R., [109]
• California, Gulf of, [65]
• Cameron, Lovett, [113]
• Canada, [67]
• Canary Islands, [18], [27], [52]
• Cano, Sebastian del, [65]
• Canton, [69]
• Cão, Diogo, [53]
• Cape of Good Hope, [5], [53], [68]
• Cape Verde Islands, [52]
• Carpentaria, Gulf of, [70], [118]
• Carpenter, Nathanael, [105]
• Carpini, Joannes de Plano, [42]
• Carteret, Philip, [85]
• Carthage, [5]
• Cartier, Jacques, [66]
• Cartography. See [Map-making]
• Caspian Sea, [30], [39], [49], [71]
• Cassini, J. and D., [95], [104]
• Catalan map, [50]
• Catalonians, [49]
• Cavendish, Sir Thomas, [67]
• Ceylon, [31], [50], [57]
• Chad, Lake, [109]
• Challenger, [130], [143]
• Champlain, Samuel, [67]
• Chancellor, Richard, [79]
• Charcot, J. B., [132]
• Chelyuskin, Lieut. T., [80]
• Chile, [66]
• China, [3], [30], [34], [43], [44], [71], [117]
• Chorography, [104]
• Chronometer, [97]
• Chrysoloras, Emanuel, [54]
• Cintra, Pedro de, [52]
• Clapperton, H., [109]
• Clarke, Capt., [122]
• Cluverius, Philip, [105]
• Coats Land, [132], [133]
• Cochin-China, [72]
• Columbus, Christopher, [56], [59]
• Compass, [48]
• Condamine, Charles de la, [96]
• Congo Free State, [113]
• —— River, [53], [103], [113], [114]
• Cook Archipelago, [88]
• Cook, Captain James, [78], [87], [103], [122]
• Coppermine River, [78]
• Cordova, Hernandez de, [64]
• Cortereal, Gaspar, [75]
• Cortez, [65]
• Covilhão, Pedro de, [53]
• Crates of Mallus, [23]
• Crete, [4], [18]
• Cross-staff, [91]
• Crozet Is., [86]
• Cruquius, M. S., [101]
• Crusades, [42], [48]
• Cuba, [61]
• Cunningham, [119]
• Cyrus, [17]
• Dahna, [117]
• d’Ailly, Cardinal, [56]
• Dampier, William, [85]
• Danes, [125], [127]
• Danfrie, [93]
• D’Anville, J. B. B., [103], [108]
• Darling, River, [119]
• Darwin, Charles, [146]
• ——, Sir George, [139]
• David, T. W, E., [132]
• Davis, Edward, [84]
• ——, John, [70], [77]
• —— Strait, [77]
• Deasy, Capt. H. H. P., [116]
• Debes, [137]
• Delisle, [9], [103]
• De Long, [127]
• Democritus of Abdera, [17]
• d’Entrecasteaux, [89]
• Desbarres, J. F. W., [103]
• Desideri, Fra, [72]
• Dezhnev, Simon, [80]
• Diaz, Bartolomeu, [53], [82]
• Dicæarchus of Messana, [20]
• Dicuil, [36]
• Digges, Leonard, [93]
• Diopler, [90]
• Dominica, [61]
• Donis. See [Germanus]
• Doughty, Charles, [117]
• Drake, Sir Francis, [66], [84]
• Drygalski, E. von, [132]
• Dufour, Gen. H., [135]
• Dupain-Triel, [101]
• Duperrey, Louis, [89]
• D’Urville, Dumont, [89], [129]
• Dutch East India Co., [69]
• Earth, figure of, [19], [22], [34], [36], [43], [81], [90], [94], [104]
• Easter Island, [84]
• East India Co., [70], [115]
• —— Indies, [68]
• Egypt, [3], [7]
• Elephantine, [16]
• Emin Pasha, [113]
• Enderby Bros., [129]
• —— Land, [129]
• Ephemerides, [97]
• Ephorus of Cyme, [18]
• Equator, [21], [62]
• Eratosthenes, [22]
• Erebus, Mt., [130], [131]
• Eric the Red, [75]
• Erichsen, L. Mylius, [127]
• Ericsson, Leif, [75]
• Eskimo, [2]
• Eudoxus of Cnidus, [19]
• —— of Cyzicus, [24]
• Europe, [9], [13], [14], [27], [39]
• Europus, [10]
• Everest, Sir George, [135]
• Eyre, [120]
• Faeröe Islands, [37]
• Fernandez, John, [52]
• Fernel, Jean, [93]
• Filchner, Lieut., [133]
• Firmianus, Lactantius, [34]
• Flinders, Matthew, [117]
• Florida, [64], [66]
• Forbes, Edward, [143]
• Forel, F. A., [141]
• Forrest, Sir J., [121]
• Fortunate Isles, [27]
• Franklin, J., [122], [123]
• Franz Josef Land, [125], [127]
• Freycinet, J. C. D. de, [89]
• Freyre, Fra, [72]
• Frisius, Gemma, [97], [104]
• Frisland, [76]
• Frobisher, Martin, [76]
• —— Strait, [77]
• Gaetano, [88]
• Gama, Vasco da, [68]
• Gambia, River, [108]
• Ganges, River, [115]
• Gastaldi, [103]
• Geodesy, [138]
• Geomorphology, [139]
• Germanus, Nicolaus, [55]
• Gerrits, Dirk, [84]
• Giles, Ernest, [121]
• Gill, Sir David, [138]
• Glaser, E., [117]
• Gnomon, [9], [90]
• Gold Coast, [52]
• Gomez, Diego, [52]
• Goyder, [120]
• Graham Land, [129]
• Grant, T. A., [111]
• —— Land, [128]
• Graphometer, [93]
• Great Australian Bight, [118]
• —— Ice Barrier, [130], [131]
• Greeks, [8]
• Greeley, Lieut. A. W., [126]
• Green, Lowthian, [139]
• Greenland, [37], [75], [76], [80], [124], [126], [127], [128]
• Gregory, [121]
• ——, A. C., [120]
• ——, J. W., [139]
• Grenard, F., [116]
• Griesbach, L., [116]
• Grinnell Land, [124], [126]
• Grisalva, Juan de, [64]
• Haiti, [61]
• Halévy, J., [117]
• Hall, Charles, [124]
• Halley, E., [101]
• Hanno, [6]
• Harrison, John, [97]
• Hausaland, [109]
• Hawaii, [88]
• Hawkins, Captain, [70]
• Hayton, [43]
• Hearne, Samuel, [78]
• Hecatæus of Miletus, [11]
• Hedin, Sven, [116]
• Henry the Navigator, [51]
• Herodotus, [5], [11], [23], [30]
• Himilco, [6]
• Hiort, Dr. Johan, [144]
• Hipparchus, [22], [25]
• Hispaniola. See [Haiti]
• Hollar, [102]
• Homann, [101]
• Homer, [7]
• Honduras, [61]
• Hooker, Sir Joseph, [146]
• Horn, Cape, [67], [82], [84]
• Houtman, Cornelis, [69]
• Howell, [119]
• Huber, C., [117]
• Hudson Bay, [67], [76], [80]
• —— Bay Co., [78], [123]
• ——, Henry, [76], [80]
• Humboldt, Alexander von, [67], [144]
• Hume, Hamilton, [119]
• Huygens, Christiaan, [94]
• Ibn Batuta, [46]
• Ibn Haukal, [40]
• Iceland, [37], [75]
• Idrisi, [40]
• India, [3], [13], [20], [31], [44], [45], [50], [54], [57], [68], [69], [71], [115]
• Indicopleustes, Cosmas, [35]
• Inglefield, Captain, [124]
• International Council for the Study of the Sea, [144]
• —— Geographical Congress, [138]
• Ireland, [30], [37], [75], [102]
• Irtish, River, [72]
• Istakhri, [40]
• Ister, River, [14]
• Jackman, Charles, [79]
• Jackson, Frederick, [126]
• Jäderin, E., [137]
• Jamaica, [61]
• Jan Mayen Island, [80]
• Japan, [69], [70]
• Jefferys, Thomas, [104]
• Jenkinson, Anthony, [71]
• Jerusalem, [39], [49]
• Jesuits, [72]
• John of Montecorvino, [45]
• Johnston, W. and A. K., [138]
• Jones Sound, [127]
• Junker, W., [114]
• Justinian, Emperor, [34]
• Kaiser Wilhelm II. Land, [132]
• Kalahari Desert, [112]
• Kamchatka, [72], [89]
• Kane, Elisha Kent, [124]
• Kant, Immanuel, [144]
• Kara Sea, [79]
• Karlsefne, Thorfinn, [75]
• Kaulbars, Baron H., [116]
• Kemp, John, [129]
• Kennedy, [120], [123]
• Kenya, Mt., [110], [113]
• Kepler, [97]
• Kerguelen Is., [86]
• Kerguelen-Trémarec, Yves de, [86]
• Kiepert, H., [137]
• Kilimanjaro, Mt., [110], [113]
• Kimberley, [121]
• King, Capt. P. P., [118]
• King Edward Land, [130], [131]
• King George Sound, [117]
• Kircher, A., [101]
• Kola Peninsula, [79]
• Koldewey, [126]
• Kotzebue, Otto von, [89]
• Kozlov, P. K., [116]
• Krapf, L., [110]
• Kremer, Gerhard. See [Mercator]
• Krishna, [115]
• Krusenstern, Adam, [89]
• Kublai Khan, [43]
• Labrador, [75]
• Lacerda, Francisco de, [109]
• Lachlan, River, [118], [119]
• Laing, A., [9], [109]
• Lambton, Col. W., [135]
• Lancaster, James, [70]
• —— Sound, [123]
• Langhans, [137]
• Lapparent, A. de, [139]
• Lapworth, C., [139]
• Latitude, [21], [97]
• Lauder, Richard, [109]
• Leachman, [117]
• Lefroy, H. M., [121]
• Lehmann, J. G., [101]
• Leichhardt, [120]
• Lemaire, Jacob, [84]
• Leon, Juan Ponce de, [63]
• Le Testu, Guillaume, [69]
• Lhasa, [72], [115]
• Limnology, [141]
• Littledale, St. George, [116]
• Liverpool Plains, [119]
• Livingstone, David, [112]
• Longitude, [97]
• Loubet Land, [132]
• Louisiana, [67]
• Louis Philippe Land, [129]
• Love, A. E. H., [139]
• Lualaba, River, [112]
• Luque, Hernando de, [66]
• McClintock, [124]
• McClure, [124]
• Mackenzie, Alexander, [78]
• —— River, [78]
• McKinlay, T., [121]
• McMurdo Sound, [132]
• Macquarie, River, [118], [119]
• Madagascar, [44], [57]
• Madeira, [50], [52]
• Magalhães, Fernao de, [64], [82]
• Magellan. See [Magalhães]
• Magnetic Pole, [123], [127]
• Magnus, Albertus, [43]
• Mahomed Ali, [110]
• Malacca, [68]
• Malay Archipelago, [44], [57], [68], [69], [70]
• —— Peninsula, [5]
• Mam, Island of, [56]
• Manchuria, [89]
• Mandeville, Sir John, [45]
• Maoris, [2]
• Map-making, [2], [9], [12], [37], [41], [46], [54], [98], [137], [145]
• Marianne Islands, [65]
• Marinus of Tyre, [26], [40]
• Marion-Dufresne, [86]
• Marion Is., [86]
• Markham, [126]
• ——, Albert, [124]
• Marquesas Is., [83]
• Martianus Capella, [34]
• Masailand, [113]
• Masudi, [40]
• Maupertuis, P. L. M. de, [96]
• Mauro, Fra, [50], [55]
• Maury, Matthew F., [14], [20]
• Mawson, Dr. D., [132], [133]
• Mediterranean, the, [3], [5], [37], [39], [48], [58], [143]
• Melville Island, [123]
• Mendana, [83]
• Mercator, [98], [102], [103]
• Meridian, [22], [41]
• Meroe, [16]
• Mexico, [64], [65]
• Middleton, Christopher, [78]
• Mill, H. R., [106]
• Mitchell, Sir Thomas, [120]
• Moeris, Lake, [3]
• Moluccas, [60], [69]
• Monaco, Prince of, [144]
• Mongolia, [115]
• Moseley, H. N., [143]
• Mota, Antonio de, [69]
• Mountains of the Moon, [31]
• Muhammad ben Musa, [90]
• Münster, Sebastian, [105]
• Murray, River, [119]
• ——, Sir John, [141], [143]
• Murrumbidgee, River, [119]
• Muscovy Company, [79], [80]
• Musil, [117]
• Nachtigal, G., [114]
• Nain Singh, [115]
• Nansen, Fridtjof, [126]
• Nares, Sir George, [124], [143]
• Nasamonian youths, the, [16]
• Natal, [68]
• Nathorst, [127]
• Nearchus, [20]
• Necho, [5]
• Neckam, Alexander, [48]
• New Caledonia, [88]
• Newfoundland, [75]
• New Granada, [66]
• New Guinea, [69], [83], [87]
• New Hebrides, [83], [85], [88]
• New Pomerania, [84]
• New Siberian Is., [127]
• New South Wales, [117]
• Newton, Sir Isaac, [94], [105], [144]
• New Zealand, [70], [83], [87]
• Nicaragua, [64]
• Niebuhr, Carsten, [73]
• Niger, River, [16], [108], [109]
• Nile, River, [16], [31], [37], [49], [108], [110], [111]
• Nordenskiöld, A. E., [125], [126]
• Norfolk Is., [88]
• Norsemen, [37]
• North America, [2], [61], [67], [75]
• North American Indians, [2]
• North Cape, [75]
• North-East Passage, [78]
• North-West Passage, [76], [127]
• Norwood, Richard, [93]
• Nova Scotia, [75]
• Novaya Zemlya, [72], [75], [80]
• Ob, River, [80]
• Oceanography, [141]
• Odoric, [45], [71]
• Œcumene, [22], [23]
• Ohio, River, [66]
• Okhotsk, Sea of, [72]
• Orellana, Francisco de, [66]
• Orinoco, River, [61], [145]
• Orkney Islands, [37]
• Orléans, Prince Henry of, [116]
• Orontius, [82]
• Ortelius, [65], [102]
• Oudney, W., [109]
• Oxley, Lieut., [118]
• Pacific Ocean, [64], [65], [82], [83], [87]
• Palestine, [48]
• Palgrave, W. G., [117]
• Pamirs, [115]
• Paradise, [39]
• Paris, Matthew, [48]
• Park, Mungo, [108]
• Parmenides, [9]
• Parry (Arctic), [122], [126]
• —— (Australia), [120]
• Pascal, [93]
• Paulmyer, Sieur de Gonneville, [69]
• Paumotu Is., [84], [85]
• Pausanias, [32]
• Payer, Lieut. Julius, [125]
• Payva, Alphonso, [53]
• Peary, Robert E., [126], [127]
• Peking, [69]
• Penna, Orazio della, [72]
• Periodos (circuit of the earth), [12]
• Periœci, [23]
• Periplus, [12], [18]
• —— of the Erythræan Sea, [3]
• Pérouse, J. F. D. de la, [89]
• Persia, [71]
• Persian Gulf, [20]
• Perthes, Justus, [137]
• Peru, [3], [66]
• Peschel, Oscar, [145]
• Pet, Arthur, [79]
• Peter Is., [128]
• Petermann, A., [137]
• Peutinger Table, [26]
• Pevtsov, [116]
• Phasis, River, [11]
• Philip, George, [138]
• Philippine Islands, [65]
• Phipps, Captain, [122], [142]
• Phœnicians, [4]
• Picard, Jean, [94], [101]
• Pigafetta, F., [99]
• Pines, Isle of, [88]
• Pinzon, Vicente Yañez, [59], [62]
• Pizarro, Francisco, [66]
• Plane-table, [93]
• Plato, [18]
• Pliny the Elder, [26]
• Polo, Marco, [43], [69]
• Polybius of Megalopolis, [23]
• Polyhistor, Julius Solinus, [35]
• Pomponius Mela, [26]
• Pont, Timothy, [102]
• Portolano maps, [48], [50], [55]
• Portuguese, [51], [55], [60], [68], [79], [108]
• Posidonius the Stoic, [23], [72]
• Potamology, [141]
• Potanin, [116]
• Prester John, [53]
• Pretorius, Jean, [93]
• Prjevalsky, Nicolai, [116]
• Procopius, [34]
• Ptolemy, [26], [39], [54], [72]
• Putte, Samuel van der, [72]
• Pygmies, [7], [17]
• Pythagoras, [8]
• Pytheas of Massilia, [21]
• Quadrant, [91], [94]
• Queensland, [119], [120]
• Quiros, Pedro Fernandez de, [83]
• Rae, Dr. John, [124]
• Ramsden, [97]
• Ratzel, Friedrich, [145]
• Ravenstein, A., [137]
• Rawling, Capt. G. C., [116]
• Rebmann, T., [110]
• Red Sea, [5], [35]
• Regiomontanus, [97]
• Rennell, Maj. James, [104]
• Retes, Inigo Ortes de, [83]
• Retreat of the Ten Thousand, [17]
• Rhins, Dutreuil de, [116]
• Rhodesia, [5]
• Richard of Haldingham, [48]
• Richardson, Sir John, [124]
• Richer, Jean, [94]
• Richthofen, Ferdinand, Baron von, [117], [145]
• Rio de la Plata, [62]
• Ripon Falls, [111]
• Ritter, Karl, [145]
• Roborovsky, [116]
• Rockhill, W. W., [116]
• Roe, J. S., [121]
• Roggeveen, Jacob, [85]
• Rohlfs, G., [114]
• Romans, [24]
• Rome, [19]
• Rosen, P. G., [138]
• Ross, Capt., [122], [123], [142]
• ——, James Clark, [123], [142]
• ——, Sir James, [130]
• Roy, General, [103], [104]
• Royal Geographical Soc., [146]
• Russians, [72], [78], [80], [116]
• Rusticiano of Pisa, [44]
• Ruwenzori Mts., [113]
• Sadlier, Capt. G. F., [117]
• Sahara Desert, [52], [109], [114]
• St. Basil the Great, [34]
• St. Brandon, Island of, [58]
• St. Francis Xavier, [69]
• St. Lawrence River, [66]
• St. Martin, Vivien de, [138]
• Samoa, [85]
• San Salvador, [60]
• Sanson, Nicolas, [99]
• Saxton, Christopher, [102]
• Scandinavia, [7], [21], [30], [37], [49], [58], [75]
• Scaph, [90]
• Schouten, Willem Cornelis, [84]
• Schrader, F., [138]
• Schweinfürth, Georg, [114]
• Scoresby, William, [81], [126], [142]
• Scotland, survey, [103]
• Scott, Capt. R. F., [131], [133]
• Scroggs, John, [78]
• Scylax of Caryanda, [12]
• Semliki River, [113]
• Senegal, [109]
• Shackleton, Sir E., [131], [132]
• Shetland Islands, [37]
• Shirley, Sir Anthony and Robert, [71]
• Siberia, [44], [72], [80]
• Sicily, [7]
• Sidon, [7]
• Sierra Leone, [52]
• Sission, Jonathan, [97]
• Smith, William, [128]
• ——, Leigh, [125]
• —— Sound, [78], [124], [128]
• Snell, Willibrord, [93]
• Society Is., [85], [87]
• Sokoto, [109]
• Solis, Juan Diaz de, [62]
• Somaliland, [110]
• Soto, Hernandez de, [66]
• South America, [56], [62], [66], [67], [82]
• Southern Continent, [81], [83]
• South Orkney Is., [128]
• South Shetland Is., [84], [128]
• Spaniards, [60], [63]
• Speed, John, [102]
• Speke, T. H., [110]
• Spitsbergen, [75], [79], [124], [127]
• Spruner, K. von, [137]
• Stanford, Edward, [138]
• Stanley, H. M., [112], [113]
• Stefansson, [128]
• Stein, Sir M. A., [116]
• Stieler, A., [137]
• Stony Desert, [120]
• Strabo, [18], [24], [141]
• Stuart, J. M., [121]
• Sturt, Charles, [119], [120]
• Submarine cable, [142]
• Sudan, [114]
• Suess, E., [139]
• Suleiman, [40]
• Supan, A., [137], [139]
• Surveying, [93], [102], [135]
• Sverdrup, [127]
• Swartha, Claudius Clavus, [55]
• Sydney, [117]
• Syene, [22]
• Syria, [71]
• Tachard, P., [72]
• Tahiti, [87]
• Tanais, River, [14], [21], [37]
• Tanganyika, Lake, [111], [112]
• Tasman, Abel Janszoon, [70], [83]
• Tasmania, [70], [117]
• Terror, Mt., [130], [131]
• Texeira, Pedro, [67]
• Thales of Miletus, [8]
• Theodolite, [97]
• Theophanes of Mytilene, [24]
• Theophrastus of Lesbos, [20]
• Thompson, Sir C. Wyville, [143]
• Thomson, Joseph, [113]
• Thule, [21]
• Thury, Cassini de, [104]
• Tibet, [44], [71], [73]
• Tierra del Fuego, [67], [84]
• Timbuktu, [109]
• Toll, Baron, [127]
• Tongan Archipelago, [84], [88]
• Torrens, Lake, [120]
• Torres, [70], [83]
• —— Strait, [83]
• Torricelli, [93]
• Toscanelli, Paolo del Pozzi, [56]
• Traverse Is., [128]
• Trinidad, [61]
• Triquetum, [90]
• Turkestan, [115]
• Turnagain, Cape, [123]
• Turner, Capt., [73]
• Tyre, [4]
• Uganda, [111]
• Ugyen Gyatso, [115]
• Unyamwezi, [111]
• Varenius, Bernhard, [105]
• Vernier, François, [93]
• Vesconte, Petrus, [49]
• Vespucci, Amerigo, [62]
• Victoria, [119]
• —— Falls, [112]
• —— Land, [130], [133]
• —— Nile, [111]
• —— Nyanza, [111], [113]
• Vinci, Leonardo da, [82]
• Vineland, [37], [75]
• Virgilius, Bishop of Salzburg, [36]
• Vlamingh, William de, [70]
• Volga, River, [30]
• Wagner, Hermann, [145]
• Waldseemüller, Martin, [63], [103]
• Wallace, Sir Alfred Russel, [146]
• Wallis, Samuel, [85]
• Warburton, [121]
• Watling Island, [60]
• Weddell, James, [129]
• Wellby, Capt. W. S., [116]
• Welle, River, [114]
• Werner, [99]
• Western Australia, [121]
• West Indies, [60]
• Weyprecht, Lieut., [125]
• Whale fisheries, [80]
• White Nile, [108]
• —— Sea, [75], [79]
• Wiggins, Capt. Joseph, [125]
• Wilkes, Charles, [89], [130]
• William of Rubruquis, [42]
• Willoughby, Sir Hugh, [79]
• Wills, William, [121]
• Wilson, [131]
• Wissmann, [113]
• Wright, Edward, [99]
• Xenophon, [17]
• Yenisei, River, [80], [125]
• Yucatan, [64]
• Zambezi, River, [5], [109], [112]
• Zanzibar, [44], [57], [110]
• Zeno, Nicolo, [76]
• Zoogeography, [140]

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Transcriber’s Notes

Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.

Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained.