We began by measurement of angles, we end with a wide range of instruments illustrating the application of almost every branch of physical as well as of mathematical science. In modern observatories applications of the laws of Optics, Heat, Chemistry and Electricity, are met with at every turn.
Each introduction of a new instrument, or of a new method of attack, has by no means abolished the preexisting one; accretion rather than substitution has been the rule. On the one hand, measurement of angles goes on now more diligently than it did in the days of Hipparchus, but the angles are better measured, because the telescope has been added to the divided arc. Time is as necessary now as it was in the days of the clepsydra, but now we make a pendulum divide its flow into equal intervals and electricity record it. On the other hand, the colours of the stars are noted as carefully now as they were before the spectroscope was applied to the telescope, but now we study the spectrum and inquire into the cause of the colour. The growth of the power of the telescope as an instrument for eye observations has gone on, although now almost all phenomena can be photographically recorded.
The uses to which all astronomical instruments may be put may be roughly separated into two large groups:—
I. They may be used to study the positions, motions, and sizes of the various masses of matter in the universe. Here we are studying celestial mechanics or mechanical astronomy, and with these we have already dealt.
II. They maybe used to study the motions of the molecules of which these various masses are built up, to learn their quality, arrangement, and motions. Here we are studying celestial physics, or physical astronomy.
It is with this latter branch that we now have to do.
First we have to deal with the quantity and intensity of the ethereal vibrations set up by the constituent molecules of these distant bodies. We wish to compare the quantity of light given out by one star with that given out by another. We wish, say, to compare the light of Mars with the light of Saturn; we are landed in the science of photometry, which for terrestrial light-sources has been so admirably investigated by Rumford, Bouguer, and others.
Here we deal with that radiation from each body which affects the eye—but by no means the total radiation. This is a point of very considerable importance.
Modern science recognises that in the radiation from all bodies which give us white light there is so great a difference of length of wave in the vibrations that different effects are produced on different bodies. Thus white light is a compound thing containing long waves with which heat phenomena are associated, waves of medium length to which alone the eye is tuned, and short waves which have a decided action on some metallic salts which are unaffected by the others.
To thus examine the constituents of a beam of light a lantern, with a lime-light or electric light, may be used for throwing a constant beam; we may then produce an image of the cylinders of lime or the carbon points in the lantern on a piece of paper or a screen, and our eyes will tell us that this is an instance of how the radiations from any incandescent substance are competent to give us light. We receive all the rays to which our eyes are tuned and we see a white image on the screen. We shall see also that the light is more intense than that of a candle, in other words that the radiation from the light-sources we have named is very great.