The dawn of astronomy / A study of the temple-worship and mythology of the ancient Egyptians

by Sir Norman Lockyer

Here again we are in presence of as distinct differences in astronomical thought and purpose of observation as we found among those who directed temples to the sun at the equinox, as opposed to those who worshipped that luminary at some other time of the year.

Now with regard to the northern stars observed rising in high amplitudes, we have found traces of their worship in times so remote that in all probability at Annu and Denderah α Ursæ Majoris was used before it became circumpolar. We deal almost certainly with 5000 B.C.

Since undoubtedly new temples with nearly similar amplitudes (such as that denoted by M at Karnak) were built in late times, we find so long a range of time indicated that the utility of the stellar observations from the yearly point of view could scarcely have been in question, for the reason that the same star could not herald an equinox or a solstice for four thousand years.

It may be suggested, therefore, that the observations made in them had ultimately to do with the determination of the hours of the night; this seems probable, for in Nubia at present, time at night is thus told.

It may be that such stars as Canopus were used by the southern peoples for the same purpose as α Ursæ Majoris first and then γ Draconis were used by the northerners. In other words, the question arises whether the extreme north and south stars were not both used as warners of the dawn all the year round, after the cult had been established for use at some special time. Canopus, for instance, was of use to herald the autumnal equinox, 6—5000 B.C.; but it is quite natural to suppose that its utility for night work at all times of the year during which it was visible would soon suggest itself, and the same remarks apply to the Northern star γ Draconis.

It is well known that in quite early times means had been found of dividing the day and night into twelve hours. In the day shadows cast by the sun, or sundials, might have been used, but how about the night?

We have seen that the Egyptians chiefly, if not exclusively, observed a heavenly body and the position of other bodies in relation to it, when it was rising or setting, so that it was absolutely essential that the body which they were to observe should rise and set. Everybody knows that as seen in England there are many stars which neither rise nor set. The latitude of London being 51°, the elevation of the pole is 51°.

Hence, any star which lies within that distance from the pole cannot set, but sweeps round without touching the horizon at all. The latitude of Thebes being 25°, the distance from the pole to the horizon is much smaller, and so the number of stars which do not rise and set is much smaller. The stars which do not rise or set are stars near the pole, and therefore stars which move very slowly, and the stars which rise most to the north and most to the south are those bodies which are moving most slowly while they yet rise or set. Can this slow rate of motion have had anything to do with such stars being selected for observation, the brightest star to the north most slowly moving, the brightest star to the south most slowly moving? It is possible that observations of these stars might have been made in such a way that at the beginning of the evening the particular position of γ Draconis, for instance, might have been noted with regard to the pole-star; and seeing that the Egyptians thoroughly knew the length of the night and of the day in the different portions of the year, they could at once—the moment they had the starting-point afforded by the position of this star—practically use the circle of the stars round the north pole as the dial of a sort of celestial clock. May not this really have been the clock with which they have been credited? However long or short the night, the star which was at first above the pole-star,[112] after it had got round so that it was on a level with it, would have gone through a quarter of its revolution.

In low northern latitudes, however, the southern stars would serve better for this purpose, since the circle of northern circumpolar stars would be much restricted. Hence there was a reason in such latitudes for preferring southern stars. With regard both to high north and south stars, then, we may in both cases be in presence of observations made to determine the time at night. So that the worship of Set, the determination of the time at night by means of northern stars, might have been little popular with those who at Gebel Barkal and elsewhere in the south had used the southern ones for the same purpose, and this may be one reason why the Theban priests, representing Nubian astronomical culture and methods, were pledged to drive the cult of Sutech out of the land.

Since, then, the observations of γ Draconis might be used to herald the sunrise almost all the year round; and since the modern constellation Draco is the old Hippopotamus, we can readily understand Plutarch's statement that "Taurt presides over the birth of the sun," and why Taurt or Mut should be called the Mistress of Darkness.[113]