Each nation considers its own the most ancient character. The Makásar alphabet is less complete than the Búgis, which consists of twenty-two letters, varied by six vocal sounds. The form of the character is peculiar, and more nearly resembles that of the Bátas on Sumatra than any other we know of. It is difficult to decide whether the Búgis or Makásar language is the most ancient. Many words have the same meaning in both, and many others differ so little[299] as to be evidently of the same origin; but the Búgis has often six or seven synonymes, whereas the Makásar has never more than two, and seldom more than one. Some of the Búgis words bear strong evidence of Hindu origin, as sóda from sóna, gold; paráma from brahma, fire; which is not at all the case with the Makásar.
La Galíga, the reputed son of Sawíra Gáding, is considered the author of the history of Sawíra Gáding, which is a kind of heroic poem, and is read in a chaunting voice, with a pause at the end of every fifth syllable. The measure consists of a dactyl followed by a trochee, as Sāwĭră Gādĭng to Mălămpōă, (Sawíra Gáding the great). He is the only author whose name is commonly known; and all books, even the most modern, which are written in the same manner, are called after him Galíga, although, properly speaking, the term should only be applied to the history of the heroes who are supposed to have lived previous to the seven generations of anarchy which subsisted at Bóni. Sultána Zaenab Zakeyat Udiu, the seventeenth sovereign of Bóni subsequent to the anarchy, is said to have written an historical poem, containing the exploits of all the sovereigns of Bóni, from the reign of Máta Se Sámpo, the menúron of Matájam, down to her own time; but it is not to be procured on the western side of Celebes. It appears, however, that every Búgis family of high rank possesses a very authentic history of that period, collected from the records of the court of Bóni.
The author of the Rupáma is not known, nor indeed is the name of any Makásar author known. The Rupáma is considered by the Búgis, as well as the Makásars, to be of equal antiquity with the Sawíra Gáding. Copies of both these works have been obtained.
In the account given by Dr. Leyden, in his valuable paper on the Hindi-Chinese nations,[300] upwards of fifty literary compositions in the language of this country are enumerated, most of which serve either to celebrate the deeds of their national heroes, or are of an amatory character. Besides these they possess codes of laws, or rather customs, said to be of considerable antiquity. The Koran has been translated into the Búgis language. The use of rhyme is much less frequent than among the Maláyus; and it has been observed by Dr. Leyden, that "the melody of the verse depends on the rhythm, and the measure of some of the historical poems has, in this respect, considerable similarity to some of the specimens of Sanscrit verse." The Búgis songs are very numerous, and in high estimation throughout the Archipelago.
They have no books on science, philosophy, or astronomy. The only stars they are acquainted with, are Jupiter (called Pelás), the Pleiades (called Wórong Pórong), Sirius and Orion (Jáng'an Jáng'an, or the Fowl), the Great Bear (Jonga Jong'aya), Navis (Belikaipon), and Antares (Lambáro). They navigate their práhus by these stars, some of which must always be in sight, if the weather be clear.
The Makásars use the Mahomedan names for the months. The Búgis divide their year of three hundred and sixty-five days into twelve months, beginning on our sixteenth of May. Whether this division of the year has taken place since the arrival of Europeans or not, is uncertain; but it is more than probable it has, as, with all this correctness, it does not appear they have any era; at least since the introduction of Mahomedanism, the Hegira seems to be used. The Búgis names of the months, and the number of days they contain, are as follow:—
| Sarowaná | 30 | days. |
| Padronwáne | 30 | |
| Sujewi | 30 | |
| Pachekae | 31 | |
| Posáe | 31 | |
| Mangaseram | 32 | |
| Mangasutéwe | 30 | |
| Mangalompae | 31 | |
| Nayae | 30 | |
| Palagunae | 30 | |
| Besakai | 30 | |
| Jetai | 30 |
Some division of time into months and years must have taken place at a much earlier date; as some of the earliest of the present line of kings, and the length of their reigns, are particularly mentioned.
I have before stated that slavery is practised on the island, and that the states not only supply slaves for domestic consumption (if I may use that phrase), but for export and commercial traffic. There are examples of whole villages becoming slaves, and there is scarcely a state or family of rank on the island that has not its assortment of these degraded beings, many of whom are reduced to this condition by the most cruel and insidious means.
Of the thousands exported annually from Makásar, the greatest portion consisted of persons who had been kidnapped by people acting under the authority of the European Residents, or the princes of the country.