1. The mass of muscles forming the ball of the thumb;
2. the mass of muscles forming the ball of the little finger;
3. tendons of one of the flexor muscles of the fingers;
4. sheaths formed by the tendons of the superficial flexor
for the reception of the tendons of the deep flexor.
182. The upper extremity is covered by a tendinous expansion or fascia which envelopes the whole arm, encloses its muscles as in a sheath, and affords them, in their strong actions, "that kind of support which workmen feel in binding their arms with thongs." This fascia likewise descends between many of the muscles, forming strong partitions between them, and affording points of origin to many of their fibres, scarcely less fixed than bone itself.
183. From the whole, it appears, that the first joint of the upper extremities, that of the shoulder, is a ball and socket joint, a joint admitting of motion in every direction; that the second joint, that of the elbow, is partly a hinge-joint, admitting of flexion and extension, and partly a rotation joint, admitting of a turning or rotatory motion; and that the joints of the wrist and of the fingers are likewise hinge-joints, admitting at the same time of some degree of lateral motion. When these various motions are combined, the result is that the hand can apply itself to bodies in almost every direction, in any part of the area described by the arm, when all the joints are moved to their utmost extent. There is thus formed an instrument of considerable strength, capable of a surprising variety and complexity of movements, capable of seizing, holding, pulling, pushing and striking with great power, yet at the same time capable of apprehending the minutest objects, and of guiding them with the utmost gentleness, precision, and accuracy, so that there are few conceptions of the designing mind which cannot be executed by the skilful hand.
184. The lower extremities consist of the thigh, leg, and foot.
185. The osseous part of the thigh consists of a single bone, called the femur (fig. XXXIV. 4), the longest, thickest, and strongest bone in the body. It sustains the entire weight of the trunk, and occasionally much heavier loads superimposed upon it. It is constructed in such a manner as to combine strength with lightness. This is effected by rendering the bone what is technically called cylindrical; that is, a bone in which the osseous fibres are arranged around a hollow cylinder. There are two varieties of osseous matter,—the compact, in which the fibres are dense and solid (fig. LXXXVIII. 1), and the spongy, in which the fibres are comparatively tender and delicate (fig. LXXXVIII. 2). Both varieties are, indeed, combined, more or less, in every bone, the compact substance being always external, and the spongy internal; but in the cylindrical bones the arrangement is peculiar. Every long or cylindrical bone consists of a body or shaft (fig. LXXXVIII. 4.), and of two extremities (fig. LXXXVIII. 5). The body is composed principally of compact substance, which on the external surface is so dense and solid, that scarcely any distinct arrangement is visible; but towards the interior this density diminishes; the fibres become distinct (fig. LXXXVIII. 5), and form an expanded tissue of a cellular appearance (fig. LXXXVIII. 5), the cells being called cancelli, and the structure cancellated. In the centre of the bone even the cancelli disappear; the osseous fibres terminate; and a hollow space is left filled up, in the natural state, by an infinite number of minute membranous bags which contain the marrow (fig. LXXXVIII. 3). In the body of the bone, to which strength is requisite, that part being the most exposed to external violence, the compact matter is arranged around a central cavity. By this means strength is secured without any addition of weight; for the resisting power of a cylindrical body increases in proportion to its diameter; consequently the same number of osseous fibres placed around the circumference of a circle produce a stronger bone than could have been constructed had the fibres been consolidated in the centre, and had the diameter been proportionally diminished. The hollow space thus gained in its centre, renders the bone lighter by the subtraction of the weight of as many fibres as would have gone to fill up that space; while its strength is not only not diminished by this arrangement, but positively increased. On the other hand, at the extremities of the bone, space, not strength, is required; required for the attachment and arrangement of the tendons of the muscles that act upon it, and for the formation of joints (fig. LXXXVIII. 5). Accordingly, at its extremities the bone swells out into bulky surfaces; but these surfaces are composed, not of dense and solid substance, but of spongy tissue, covered by an exceedingly thin crust of compact matter, and so, as by the former expedient strength is secured without increase of weight, by this, space is obtained without increase of weight.
A section of the femur, showing, 1. the compact bony
substance; 2. the spongy or cancellated structure; 3. the
internal cavity containing the marrow; 4. body; 5, extremities
of the bone.