In the Volhynian Polissye, Kovel (17,000 pop.), situated on the navigable Turia, is, above all, an important railroad center, which carries on a considerable trade in agricultural products and wood. Another important railroad center is Sarni on the Sluch. The antique town of Orruch on the Norin is rich in swamp-ores and pottery-clay.
The natural district of Volhynia embraces only the Volhynian Plateau, together with the wide river plains, which penetrate far into the heart of the Plateau. To [[319]]Volhynia, then, belongs the southern part of the present Government of Volhynia, as well as a small strip of the Government of Kiev, on the left bank of the Teterev. Here agriculture forms the main occupation of the people. Forestry and lumbering become less important. With regard to the manner of settlement, Volhynia still has a suggestion of the adjacent regions in the west and north, with their small villages, hamlets and single farms. In the east it begins to assume the genuine Ukrainian character, with large villages and country towns. The cities and towns of Volhynia are, as a rule, not large, inhabited chiefly by Jews, dirty and neglected, surpassing in this respect even the typical Galician villages and towns. On the Galician side there is only one city worthy of mention, namely Brodi (18,000 pop.), which carries on a considerable trade in agricultural and animal products, as well as some lively smuggling. On the Russian side the following may be enumerated, from west to east: Volodimir volinsky (10,000 pop.), formerly a royal city, now a miserable Jewish town with some lumber and grain trade and smuggling. Lutzk, Dubno and Rivne form the Volhynian triangle of forts directed against Austria. Lutzk (32,000 pop.) is an old royal city at the junction of roads which cross the navigable Stir at this point, and carries on a considerable trade, as well as a cloth and leather industry of some dimensions; Dubno (14,000 pop.), on the Ikva, is known for its once famous annual fairs; Rivne (39,000 pop.) carries on a considerable trade with grain, live-stock, alcohol, etc. Along the Austrian border lie: Berestechko on the Stir, memorable for the unhappy battle fought by Khmelnitsky against the Poles (1651); Radiviliv, opposite Brody, the main seat of smuggling; Pochayiv, a famous place of pilgrimage, and simultaneously a den of smugglers.
Kremianetz (18,000 pop.) on the Ikva, a strong fortress in the days of the Ukrainian princes, now carries on a considerable [[320]]grain trade. On the Horin, at the point where that river becomes navigable, lies Ostroh (15,000 pop.), with many ruins, the former residence of the Princes of Ostrohsky, who founded an academy here in the 16th Century, and made of Ostroh an important spiritual center of the Ukraine of that time. Zaslav (13,000 pop.), likewise on the Horin, was once the residence of the Princes of Zaslavsky. Both cities carry on some trade in grain today. On the Sluch lie the cities of Starokonstantiniv (17,000 pop.), founded by the Princes of Ostrohsky, with considerable export of grain and cattle, and Novhorod-Volinsky (Zviahel, 17,000 pop.), rich in marsh-ore and pottery-clay. Korez (10,000 pop.) is famous for its porcelain clay. Just on the border of Volhynia lies its administrative center, Zitomir (93,000 pop.). This old city lies at the edge of the forest and agricultural regions, carries on a considerable trade in grain and wood, salt and sugar, and has an important clothing, leather and tobacco industry. Downstream, on the Teterev, lies the little commercial city of Radomishl (11,000 pop.).
Podolia’s natural territory embraces the most eastern part of Galicia and almost the entire Government of Podolia, besides the northern borderlands of Kherson. Podolia is a purely agricultural region; its manufacturing is limited to home industry, besides some mills, distilleries and sugar factories. The Podolian villages are large as a rule, lie in rows in the cañon valleys, while, on the height of the plateau, usually only single farms and hamlets are seen. The huts are almost all built of loam and covered with straw. City settlements are rare and small, all insignificant emporiums for agricultural and animal products.
On the western edge of Galician-Podolia lie Horodok (13,000 pop.), on a large pond formed by the Vereshitza, and Lublin, with sulphur baths; on the Hnila Lipa, the antique city of Rohatin; on the Zlota Lipa, Berezani [[321]](13,000 pop.), with a large pond; on the Koropetz River there are Pidhaitzi and Monastiriska, with a tobacco factory; on the Stripa River, Zboriv, memorable for the decisive victory of Khmelnitsky over the Poles and for the treaty of 1649 following, which allowed the Ukraine almost complete autonomy—within the framework of the Polish state. Downstream, on the Stripa, lies the commercial city of Buchach (14,000 pop.). On the northern boundary of Podolia, already in the Buh region, lie Zolochiv (13,000 pop.) and Sassiv, with a paper and pottery industry. On the Sereth, and in its district, lie Zbaraz, memorable for the victory of Khmelnitsky (1648); Ternopil (34,000 pop.), the most important railroad center and commercial city of Podolia, with a large grain, cattle and alcohol trade; Terebovla, a former Ukrainian prince’s residence; Chortkiv, a center of Podolian local railroads. On the Sbruch, the only town worth mention is the border town and border station of Pidvolochiska-Volochiska. In the Dniester cañon there is only one important place. Salishchiki, with considerable fruit-culture. All the cities of Galician-Podolia are bridge cities, and lie at convenient crossings over the left tributaries of the Dniester. All these crossings were once guarded by castles, about which cities were later developed.
In Russian-Podolia the number of cities and towns is still smaller. The capital of the Government of Kamenetz Podilsky (50,000 pop.), lies on the Smotrich, and was at one time an important border-fortress against the Turks. To this day the city has no railroad connections, hence its commercial importance is very slight. The adjacent Zvanetz is memorable because of the Khmelnitsky campaign (1653). On the Dniester, whose entire valley is covered with fruit orchards and vineyards, lies the important river port of Mohiliv (33,000 pop.), with considerable lumber, grain and fruit trade; Ushitza with a fruit trade; the river part of Yampol on the Dniester rapids. In the [[322]]region and the valley of the Boh lie Proskuriv (41,000 pop.), a genuine village-city with considerable trade; Pilavtzi, memorable because of the complete defeat suffered there by the Poles (1648); Meziboz, in an important strategic position against the Austrian border; Letichiv and Khmelnik (11,000 pop.), surrounded by orchards; on the Shar R., Litin (10,000 pop.); on the Rivi the once famous Bar (11,000 pop.), now a miserable town; further downstream on the Boh, Vinnitza (48,000 pop.), once a Cossack city, memorable because of a defeat of the Poles (1651), now a lively commercial city. The former capital of the palatinate of Bratzlav is now entirely insignificant, likewise the new Olhopil on the Savranka. The only commercial city of any importance in Southern Podolia is the muddy Balta, which, in its famous annual fairs, trades in grain, cattle, bacon and skins, but especially pumpkins and melons, and has a soap and candle industry of some importance. The adjacent city of Ananiiv (17,000 pop.) also carries on considerable trade in agricultural products.
The Pokutian-Bessarabian Plateau embraces a narrow zone of Southeastern Galicia and the Northern Bukowina, as well as the northern part of the Russian Government of Bessarabia. The manner of settling is similar to the Podolian, with large villages and few small cities. Agriculture and wine-growing are the most important occupation of the people; toward the south cattle-raising is becoming of greater importance. Home industry is insignificant, of factory industry there is almost none. In Galician-Pokutye the only cities worthy of mention are Horodenka (11,000 pop.), in a very fertile region, and the old commercial city of Sniatin (12,000 pop.), and in Bukowina-Pokutye the commercial town of Kitzman. In Bessarabia we find, on the Dniester, the former fortress of Khotin (18,000 pop.), memorable for two Turkish battles (1621 and 1673), now a river port and the seat of an active grain and fruit trade, [[323]]as well as a notorious nest of smugglers. The second Dniester port of Bessarabia, Soroki (15,000 pop.), serves principally the export trade. At some distance from the course of the Dniester lies the insignificant town of Orhüv (13,000 pop.), and the dirty city of Biltzi (19,000 pop.), with a large grain and cattle trade. The capital of Bessarabia, Kishiniv (125,000 pop.), lies outside of the Ukrainian territory.
The Dnieper Plateau is important, not only because of its agriculture, cattle-raising and fruit-culture, but also because of a considerable cultivation of commercial plants, because of a developed home and factory industry, and because of a comparatively lively trade. It is one of the central districts of the Ukraine, with typical conditions of settlement. Large agglomerations of dwellings, picturesquely located, consisting of whitewashed, straw-covered clay huts, lie on the rivers and creeks, usually on wide valley bottoms or slightly inclined valley sides, surrounded and dotted with the fresh green of orchards. On the plateau, which is one great wave of never-ending grain-fields, there lie only a few scattered manors of large landowners, single farmhouses, bee orchards, adjoining little woodlands and groves. The number and size of the cities is not great. The prevailing type is that of the village city—a great village with an area of buildings in the middle, which have a city-like character. The streets are broad and unpaved, the green of the gardens being apparent even in the center of the city. Where the northeastern spurs of the Dnieper Plateau reach the Dnieper River, lies the natural capital of the Ukraine, the former “mother of the Ruthenian cities,” Kiev (506,000 pop.). Its great history finds expression in an enormous number of architectural monuments, especially churches and convents. (Lavra Pecherska, the Church of Sophia, the Church of Andreas, the Tithe Church, the Golden Gate, etc.). Kiev was the capital of the [[324]]ancient Ukrainian Kingdom and its spiritual center; today it is called the “Ukrainian Jerusalem,” and is visited by hundreds of thousands of pilgrims every year. Besides its historical importance, Kiev possesses also a great geographical significance. Its picturesque position on the lofty right-hand bank of the Dnieper, which is cut up into beautiful erosive hills, offers great geographical advantages. Here, opposite the Desna outlet, the Dnieper, after receiving its two largest tributaries, completes its transformation into the second largest river of Eastern Europe. The waterways of the Pripet, the upper Dnieper and the Desna here form a junction, the importance of which is heightened by the junction of railroads and highways at the same point; such thorofares have always found in Kiev the most convenient crossing over the Dnieper River into the Western Ukrainian lands. This junction of roads favors the rapidly progressing development of Kiev’s commerce, which concentrates in the “lower city” (Podil) and in its great river harbor. Kiev is the most convenient emporium for the forest and grain regions of the Ukraine, which border on one another here. In the last decades a considerable factory industry has developed in Kiev, embracing all possible branches of industry. Above all, the sugar industry has its center here. Kiev has a Russian University and a technical college. Ukrainian cultural life, which has always had its main headquarters in Kiev, has experienced an unexpected rise here since 1905.
Not far from Kiev, which is an important fortress today, there lie many places of historical significance, among them the convents of Vidubitsky and Mezihirsky. Rzishchiv is a river port with some grain exportation. On the Stuhna lies the old city of Vassilkiv (18,000 pop.), with an insignificant trade, from a modern point of view. At the point where the borders of the Governments of Kiev, Volhynia and Podolia touch, lies Berdichiv, a city of 83,000, inhabited [[325]]mostly by Jews, after Kiev the most important emporium for cattle and grain in the country. The products of the industry of this place are offered for sale by Jewish peddlers thruout the entire right half of the Ukraine. In the river region of the Ross we find several cities which are local centers of the sugar and alcohol industry: Skvira (16,000 pop.), in a region covered with ancient walls, with pottery and cap manufactures; the old Cossack city of Bila Tserkov (61,000 pop.), famous for the treaty of Khmelnitsky with the Poles (1652), now a lively commercial city, with sugar and machine manufactures; Tarashcha (11,000 pop.), with a considerable wagon industry (the familiar tarantasses are made here). Korsun is noteworthy because of the victory of Khmelnitsky over the Poles (1648). Nearby lie the villages of Kirilivka and Morintzi, the home of the greatest Ukrainian poet, Taras Shevchenko.
The entire plateau zone along the right Dnieper bank is full of old monuments of Ukrainian history, of walls, ancient fortifications, ruins and barrows. Along the Dnieper lie in succession: Trekhtimiriv, Kaniv, Cherkassi, once the most important center of the Ukrainian Cossack organization Near Kaniv, elevated on the lofty right bank of the Dnieper, is the mound of Shevchenko, visited every year by numerous companies of pilgrims of all classes of the Ukrainian nation. Kaniv is now a little town with an insignificant river harbor. Cherkassi (40,000 pop.), on the other hand, thanks to its large river harbor and the railroad which crosses the Dnieper here, has developed into a lively commercial city (wood, iron, sugar and salt trade, lumber and sugar industry). By the example of Cherkassi or Kreminchuk, we are shown how the poor villages and towns on the Dnieper could be developed if cultural conditions were favorable. A fine example of such a neglected town is Chihirin (10,000 pop.), on the Tiasmin, the former residence city of the Ukrainian hetmans. Situated, as tho [[326]]by a wonderful coincidence, in the center of the present Ukrainian territory, Chihirin is hardly more than a large village, with crooked, muddy streets, a slight lumber and grain trade, remains of the Chumak organization, and an insignificant stonecutters’ trade. In Subotiv, nearby, Khmelnitsky was buried, but his grave was destroyed by the Poles a short time after. At the Tiasmin outlet lies the river port of Kriliv (12,000 pop.), with lumber and cattle trade; further downstream, Verkhnodniprovsk, with an iron industry. At the source of the Inhuletz is Olexandria (14,000 pop.), noteworthy for some milling industry.