To my friend’s last argument I was compelled to yield. I could make no reply consistent with the great principles of fraternity, which I shall ever recognize. The promise was given. My friend went on his way, and I went to the daguerreotypist to procure a copy of the then appearance of the sky, as the first step toward its fulfillment. The fulfillment of that promise, reader, you will find in the following work. It was commenced as an article for a magazine, but it has grown on my hands to a volume. Justice could not well be done to the subject in less space. It has been written during occasional and distant intervals of relaxation from professional avocations, or during convalescence from sickness, and it is, for these reasons, somewhat imperfect in style and arrangement. But I have no time to rewrite. There is much in it which will be old to those who read journals of science, but new to those who do not. There is more which will be new to all classes of readers, and may, perhaps, be deemed heretical and revolutionary by conservative meteorologists; yet I feel assured that the work is a step in the right direction—that it contains a substantially accurate exposition of the Philosophy of the Weather, and valuable suggestions for the practical observer.
I have inserted my name in the title-page, contrary to my original intention, and at the suggestion of others; for I have no scientific reputation which will aid the publisher to sell a copy. Nor do I desire to acquire such reputation. It can never form any part of my “capital in life.” Nor has it influenced me at all in preparing the work. I have aimed to fulfill a promise, too hastily given, perhaps—to put on record the observations I have made, and the inferences I have drawn from those of others—to induce and assist further observations, and, if possible, of a general and connected character—and to impress those who may read what I have written with the belief, that they will derive a degree of pleasure from a daily familiarity with, and intelligent understanding of, the “countenance of the sky,” not exceeded by that which any other science can afford them.
I have examined, with entire freedom and fearlessness (but I trust in a manner which will not be deemed censurable or in bad taste) the theories and supposed erroneous views of others, for, in my judgment, the advancement of the science requires it. Says Sir George Harvey, in his able article on Meteorology, written for the Encyclopædia Metropolitana:
“It is humiliating to those who have been most occupied in cultivating the science of meteorology, to see an agriculturist or a waterman, who has neither instruments nor theory, foretell the future changes of the weather many days before they happen, with a precision which the philosopher, aided by all the resources of science, would be unable to attain.”
The admissions contained in this paragraph, in relation to the comparative uselessness of instruments and theories, and the value of practical observation, are both in a good measure true. And the time has come, or should speedily come, when “pride of opinion,” and “esprit du corps,” among theorists and philosophers, should neither be indulged in, nor respected; and when their theories should be freely discussed, and rigidly tested by the observations of practical men. Such measure, therefore, as I have meted, I invite in return. Let whatever I have advanced, that is new, or adopted that is old, be as rigidly tested, and as freely discussed. Let the errors, if there be any—and doubtless there are—be detected and exposed. Let the TRUTH be sought by all; and meteorology, as a PRACTICAL SCIENCE, advance to that full measure of perfection and usefulness, of which it is unquestionably susceptible.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
| PAGE | |
| [CHAPTER I.] | |
| Heat and moisture are indispensable to the fertillity of theearth—Arrangements exist for their diffusion and distribution,and all the phenomena of the weather result from theiroperation—Heat furnished or produced mainly by the directaction of the sun’s rays—Manner in which it is diffused overthe earth—Other causes operate besides the sun’s rays—Theearth intensely heated in its interior—Heat derived from thegreat Oceanic currents, and the aerial currents which flowfrom the tropics to the poles, and from magnetism and electricity—Waterdistributed by an atmospheric machinery as extensiveas the globe—Evidences of this—Its distribution overthe continents of North America—Explanation of it—Sourcefrom whence our supply of water is derived, and from which our rivers return | [1] |
| [CHAPTER II.] | |
| Our rivers return in the form of clouds, and in storms andshowers—Definition and character of storms—Differences inthe character of the clouds which constitute them—Nomenclatureof Howard—Its imperfections—New order of description—Lowfog—High fog—Storm fog—Storm scud—N. W. scud—Cumulus—Stratus—Cirrus—Compoundsof the two latter—recapitulation in tabular form | [24] |
| [CHAPTER III.] | |
| Our rivers do not return from the North Atlantic—All stormsand showersmove from the westward to the eastward—Seeming clouds seen moving from the eastward to the westwardare scud—They are incidents of the storm, and not a necessarypart of it—The storm clouds are above them, moving tothe eastward—Occasions when this may be seen—Admittedfacts prove it—Investigations prove it—May be known fromanalogy—From the fact that there is an aerial current pursuingthe same course in which the storms originate—Character ofthis current—Its influence upon our country—Importanceof a knowledge of its origin, cause, and the reciprocal actionbetween it and the earth—To this end necessary to go down“to the chambers of the South” | [43] |
| [CHAPTER IV.] | |
| The trade wind region—Its extent and arrangements—Its beltof daily rains and movable character—The trade winds—Theextra tropical belt of rains—Connection between themand their annual movements—The counter-trades—Their originand situation—One of them constitutes our aerial current—Itoriginates in the South Atlantic as a surface-trade—Anomaliesof the trade wind region—Dry seasons—Humboldt’s descriptionof them—Exist where the surface trades are situated—Therainless countries—Concentrated counter-trade—Monsoons—Receivedtheory in relation to them a fallacy—Causeof the great central phenomena—Calorific theory a fallacy—Landnot hotter under the belt of rains, nor sea materiallyso—Theory should be abandoned | [52] |
| [CHAPTER V.] | |
| The agent, magnetism—Its character and currents—Oxygenmagnetic—Precipitation at the belt of rains occasioned by depolarization—Stormsoriginate in this central belt, and move toward the poles | [82] |
| [CHAPTER VI.] | |
| Course and functions of the counter-trade—Ours come from theSouth Atlantic—Reason why it can not come from thePacific—Mistake of Mr. Redfield and Lieutenant Maury inregard to it—All our storms originate in it—Proofs of this—Stateof the weather, whether hot or cold affected by it—Proofsof this—All our surface winds are incidents of it, anddue to its conditions and attractions—Proofs of this—Characterof the different winds—Anomalies of Mr. Blodgett accountedfor—Received theory in regard to sea and landbreezes a mistaken one—Proofs of this—Peculiar characterof the N. W. wind—Identity with the winter Mexican northers—Characterof the West India hurricanes—Of the thunder-gust—Ofthe tornado—Sundry particulars in relation to thelatter—Due to currents of electricity—Proportions of windsin different localities—Examination of the work of ProfessorCoffin upon that subject—Examination of Lieutenant Maury’s theory of the monsoons | [92] |
| [CHAPTER VII.] | |
| Height of the counter-trade in different latitudes—Cause of theCalms of Cancer—Influence of mountains upon the counter-trade—Reportsof Herndon and Gibbon—Focus of precipitationin the extra-tropical belt north of its southern line—Evidencesof this—The elevation of the counter-trade above theearth varies in the same latitude with the variations in the phenomenaof the weather—Temperature of the counter-trade—Raindust, its origin and indications—Volcanic ashes—Howfar they indicate its course of progression—Question whetherthere is an eastern progression of the body of the atmosphere above the machinery of distribution | [179] |
| [CHAPTER VIII.] | |
| Important to understand the precise character of the reciprocalaction between the earth and the counter-trade—Connectionbetween the width and movements of the belt of inter-tropicalrains and the volume of the trades—Its peculiaritiesover Africa, the Atlantic, and South America—The magneticequator—Character of the storms which originate in the inter-tropicalbelt indicate local magnetic action—Supposed influenceof volcanic action—Gulf Stream changes its position—Thisthe result of magnetic action—Alternating contrasts ofheat and cold, and rain and drought—Dr. Webster’s history ofthe weather—Spots upon the sun—Their character and influence—Coldor warm periods during the same decade, andduring different decades—Connection between the spots andmagnetic disturbances and variations—Influence of the moonupon the weather—No decisive inference to be drawn fromthese facts, and a more critical examination necessary | [204] |
| [CHAPTER IX.] | |
| Examination of existing theories—Calorific theory the prevailingone—Lateral overflow of Professor Dove—Absurdity of hisviews in relation to them—His theory of hurricanes—Its absurdity—Anew theory by Mr. Dobson—Three theories advancedby meteorologists of this country—Professor Espy’stheory—Mr. Bassnett’s theory—Mr. Redfield’s theory—Extendedexamination of the latter—His theory in relation tothe fall of the barometer contradictory in its character—Philosophyof the barometric change—No aid to be derived from these theories | [232] |
| [CHAPTER X.] | |
| Further inquiry in relation to the reciprocal action between theearth and the counter-trade—Terrestrial magnetism, and whatwe know of it—Its elements, and their variations—Their connectionwith the variations of atmospheric condition—Magnetismacts through its connection with electricity—Characterof the latter and its variations—Their connection with atmosphericconditions—Electricity as well as magnetism in excessover this country—Effects of it upon our climate—Closer considerationof the atmospheric phenomena—Their diurnalchanges and connections compared with those of magnetismand electricity—Grouping of all the diurnal variations—Particularand separate examination of them—Classification ofstorms—Examination in detail of the several classes and theprimary influence of the earth or counter-trade in relation to each | [285] |
| [CHAPTER XI.] | |
| Prognostics | [340] |