Problems in American Democracy

by Thames Williamson

President Washington was authorized by Congress to appoint three assistants: a Secretary of State, a Secretary of the Treasury, and a Secretary of War. With the development of governmental functions, additional departments have been created. Congress established the Post Office Department in 1794, the Navy Department in 1798, the Department of the Interior in 1849, the Department of Justice in 1870, the Department of Agriculture in 1889, the Department of Commerce in 1903, and the Department of Labor in 1913. At present, then, there are ten Federal executive departments, all of them under the direct control of the President.

521. THE CABINET.—The heads of these ten departments are appointed by the President, nominally with the consent of the Senate. They may be removed only by the President, and by him at will. Neither in the Constitution nor in the statutes of Congress is there provision for a Cabinet, but as the result of custom which has been formulating since Washington's second term the heads of the Federal executive departments have come to constitute, in their collective capacity, the President's Cabinet. Cabinet meetings are generally held twice a week, or oftener, as the President desires.

The American Cabinet should not be confused with the Cabinet in Great Britain and other European countries. In Europe the Cabinet is generally a parliamentary ministry, that is to say, a group of men chosen from the majority party in the legislature. These Cabinet members, or ministers, sit in the legislature, propose laws, and defend their measures on the floor. They are held responsible for the national administration. This means that when the majority of the legislature fails to support them they are expected to resign, in order that the opposition party may form a new Cabinet.

Quite different is the American Cabinet. This body is advisory only, and the President may disregard the advice of any or all of its members. The Cabinet in this country is accountable only to the President. The attitude of Congress toward Cabinet officers has nothing to do with the tenure of office of these executive heads. Cabinet members do not sit in Congress; they do not, in the capacity of Cabinet officers, introduce or defend legislation; and they are not held responsible for the administration.

522. HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS AS ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS.—Collectively the heads of the ten executive departments act as the President's Cabinet; individually they administer their respective departments. Though responsible to the President and at all times working under his direction, the heads of departments are allowed a wide range of independence. Department heads may appoint and remove at will a large number of minor officers in their respective departments, though of late years this power has been considerably restricted by Civil Service rules. The exact scope of the work of the various departments is largely denned by law. Within the limits thus set, the head of the department is free to make regulations affecting the conduct of departmental business. To expedite business, the work of each department is divided and subdivided among numerous bureaus, boards, and commissions, functioning under the general direction of the head of the department.

523. THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE.—Without doubt the most important of the subordinate executive officers is the Secretary of State. His most pressing duty is to conduct foreign affairs in accordance with the wishes of the President. In pursuance of this duty, the Secretary of State issues instructions to diplomatic and consular officers, issues passports to American citizens going abroad, and otherwise exercises control of matters touching foreign relations.

Important domestic duties devolve upon the Secretary of State. When the President desires to communicate with the Governors of the several states, he acts through the Secretary of State. The Secretary is the custodian of the Great Seal of the United States. It is he who oversees the publication of the Federal statutes. The Secretary of State likewise has charge of the archives containing the originals of all laws, treaties, and foreign correspondence.

Much of the work of the Department of State is performed through bureaus, the titles of which indicate their respective functions. Of these bureaus the following are the more important: the diplomatic bureau, the consular bureau, the bureau of accounts, the bureau of indexes and archives, the bureau of rolls and library, the bureau of appointments, and the bureau of citizenship. Each of these bureaus is headed by a chief who is directly responsible to the Secretary of State. In addition to these chiefs of bureaus, the Secretary is aided by three assistant secretaries of state.

524. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY.—Supervision of the national finances is the chief business of the Secretary of the Treasury. The Secretary annually submits to Congress estimates of probable receipts and expenditures, and supervises the collection of customs and internal revenues. He also issues warrants for all moneys paid out of the treasury.

The scope of the department's work may be indicated by an enumeration of its chief officers. These include the Secretary himself, three assistant secretaries, six auditors, the treasurer, the comptroller of the treasury, the director of the mint, the register, the comptroller of the currency, the commissioner of internal revenue, the director of the bureau of engraving and printing, the chief of the secret-service department, the captain commandant of the coast guard, the superintendent of the life-saving service, the surgeon-general of the public health service, the supervising architect, and the farm loan commissioner.