The following explanation is suggested to account for the origin of the rays:—"The earth and her satellite may differ not so much as regards volcanic action as in the densities of their atmospheres. Thus if the craterlets on the rim of Tycho were constantly giving out large quantities of gas or steam, which in other regions was being constantly absorbed or condensed, we should have a wind uniformly blowing away from that summit in all directions. Should other summits in its vicinity occasionally give out gases, mixed with any fine white powder, such as pumice, this powder would be carried away from Tycho, forming streaks."
The difficulty surrounding this very ingenious hypothesis is, that though, assuming the existence of pumice-emitting craters and regions of condensation, there might be a more or less lineal and streaky deposition of this white material over large areas of the moon, why should this deposit be so definitely arranged, and why should these active little craters happen to lie on these particular lines?
The confused network of streaks round Copernicus seem to respond more happily to the requirements of Professor Pickering's hypothesis, for here there is an absence of that definiteness of direction so manifestly displayed in the case of the Tycho rays, and we can well imagine that with an area of condensation surrounding this magnificent object beyond the limits of the streaks, and a number of active little craters on and about its rim, the white material ejected might be drawn outwards in every direction by wind currents, which possibly once existed, and, settling down, assume forms such as we see.
Nasmyth's well-known hypothesis attributes the radiating streaks to cracks in the lunar globe caused by the action of an upheaving force, and accounts for their whiteness by the outwelling of lava from them which has spread to a greater or less distance on either side. If the moon has been fractured in this way, we can easily suppose that the craters formed on these fissures, being in communication with the interior, might eject some pulverulent white matter long after the rest of the surface with its other types of craters had attained a quiescent stage.
The Tycho rays, when viewed under ordinary conditions, appear to extend in unbroken bands to immense distances. One of the most remarkable, strikes along the eastern side of Fracastorius, across the Mare Nectaris to Guttemberg, while another, more central, extends, with local variations in brightness, through Menelaus, over the Mare Serenitatis nearly to the north-west limb. This is the ray that figures so prominently in rude woodcuts of the moon, in which the Mare Serenitatis traversed by it is made to resemble the Greek letter PHI. The Kepler, Aristarchus, and Copernicus systems, though of much smaller extent, are very noteworthy from the crossing and apparent interference of the rays; while those near Byrgius, round Aristarchus, and the rays from Proclus, are equally remarkable.
[Nichol found that the rays from Kepler cut through rays from Copernicus and Aristarchus, while rays from the latter cut through rays from the former. He therefore inferred that their relative ages stand in the order,—Copernicus, Aristarchus, Kepler.]
As no branch of selenography has been more neglected than the observation of these interesting but enigmatical features, one may hope that, in spite of the exacting conditions as to situation and instrumental requirements necessary for their successful scrutiny, the fairly equipped amateur in this less favoured country will not be deterred from attempting to clear up some of the doubts and difficulties which at present exist as to their actual nature.
THE MOON'S ALBEDO, SURFACE BRIGHTNESS, &c.—Sir John Herschel maintained that "the actual illumination of the lunar surface is not much superior to that of weathered sandstone rock in full sunshine." "I have," he says, "frequently compared the moon setting behind the grey perpendicular facade of the Table Mountain, illuminated by the sun just risen in the opposite quarter of the horizon, when it has been scarcely distinguishable in brightness from the rock in contact with it. The sun and moon being at nearly equal altitudes, and the atmosphere perfectly free from cloud or vapour, its effect is alike on both luminaries." Zollner's elaborate researches on this question are closely in accord with the above observational result. Though he considers that the brightest parts of the surface are as white as the whitest objects with which we are acquainted, yet, taking the reflected light as a whole, he finds that the moon is more nearly black than white. The most brilliant object on the surface is the central peak of the ring-plain Aristarchus, the darkest the floor of Grimaldi, or perhaps a portion of that of the neighbouring Riccioli. Between these extremes, there is every gradation of tone. Proctor, discussing this question on the basis of Zollner's experiments respecting the light reflected by various substances, concludes that the dark area just mentioned must be notably darker than the dark grey syenite which figures in his tables, while the floor of Aristarchus is as white as newly fallen snow.
The estimation of lunar tints in the usual way, by eye observations at the telescope, involving as it does physiological errors which cannot be eliminated, is a method far too crude and ambiguous to form the basis of a scientific scale or for the detection of slight variations. An instrument on the principle of Dawes' solar eyepiece has been suggested; this, if used with an invariable and absolute scale of tints, would remove many difficulties attending these investigations. The scale which was adopted by Schroter, and which has been used by selenographers up to the present time, is as follows:—
0 deg. = Black.
1 deg. = Greyish black.
2 deg. = Dark grey.
3 deg. = Medium grey.
4 deg. = Yellowish grey.
5 deg. = Pure light grey.
6 deg. = Light whitish grey.
7 deg. = Greyish white.
8 deg. = Pure white.
9 deg. = Glittering white.
10 deg. = Dazzling white.