Half Hours With Modern Scientists: Lectures and Essays

by Thomas Henry Huxley; George F. Barker; E. D. Cope; James Hutchison Stirling; John Tyndall

β. Of the Characters of Higher Groups.

a. Relations of Structures. The evidences of derivative origin of the structures defining the groups called genera, and all those of higher grade, are of a very different character from those discussed in relation to specific characters; they are more difficult of observation and explanation.

Firstly: It would appear to be supposed by many that the creation of organic types was an irregular and capricious process, variously pursued by its Author as regards time and place, and without definite final aim; and this notwithstanding the wonderful evidences we possess, in the facts of astronomy, chemistry, sound, etc., of His adhesion to harmonious and symmetrical sequences in His modes and plans.

Such regularity of plan is found to exist in the relations of the great divisions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms as at present existing on the earth. Thus, with animals we have a great class of species which consists of nothing more than masses or cells of protoplasmic matter, without distinct organs; or the Protozoa. We have then the Cœlenterata (example, corals,) where the organism is composed of many cells arranged in distinct parts, but where a single very simple system of organs, forming the only internal cavity of the body, does the work of the many systems of the more complex animals. Next, the Echinodermata (such as star-fish) present us with a body containing distinct systems of organs enclosed in a visceral cavity, including a rudimental nervous system in the form of a ring. In the Molluscs to this condition is added additional complication, including extensions of the nervous system from the ring as a starting-point, and a special organ for a heart. In the Articulates (crabs, insects,) we have like complications, and a long distinct nervous axis on the lower surface of the body. The last branch or division of animals is considered to be higher, because all the systems of life organs are most complex or specialized. The nervous ring is almost obliterated by a great enlargement of its usual ganglia, thus become a brain, which is succeeded by a long axis on the upper side of the body. This and other points define the Vertebrata.

Plans of structure, independent of the simplicity or perfection of the special arrangement or structure of organs, also define these great groups. Thus the Protozoa present a spiral, the Cœlenterata a radiate, the Echinodermata a bilateral radiate plan. The Articulates are a series of external rings, each in one or more respects repeating the others. The Molluscs are a sac, while a ring above a ring, joined together by a solid center-piece, represents the plan of each of the many segments of the Vertebrates which give the members of that branch their form.

These bulwarks of distinction of animal types are entered into here simply because they are the most inviolable and radical of those with which we have to deal, and to give the anti-developmentalist the best foothold for his position. I will only allude to the relations of their points of approach, as these are affected by considerations afterward introduced.

The Vertebrates approach the Molluscs at the lowest extreme of the former and higher of the latter. The lamprey eels of the one possess several characters in common with the cuttle-fish or squids of the latter. The amphioxus is called the lowest Vertebrate, and though it is nothing else, the definition of the division must be altered to receive it; it has no brain!

The lowest forms of the Molluscs and Articulates are scarcely distinguishable from each other, so far as adhesion to the “plan” is concerned, and some of the latter division are very near certain Echinodermata. As we approach the boundary-lines of the two lowest divisions, the approaches become equally close, and the boundaries very obscure.

More instructive is the evidence of the relation of the subordinate classes of any one of these divisions. The conditions of those organs or parts which define classes exhibit a regular relation, commencing with simplicity and ending with complication; first associated with weak exhibitions of the highest functions of the nervous system—at the last displaying the most exalted traits found in the series.

For example: In the classes of Vertebrates we find the lowest nervous system presents great simplicity—the brain cannot be recognized; next (in lampreys), the end of the nervous axis is subdivided, but scarcely according to the complex type that follows. In fishes the cerebellum and cerebral hemispheres are minute, and the intermediate or optic lobes very large: in the reptiles the cerebral hemispheres exceed the optic lobes, while the cerebellum is smaller. In birds the cerebellum becomes complex and the cerebrum greatly increases. In mammals the cerebellum increases in complexity or number of parts, the optic lobes diminish, while the cerebral hemispheres become wonderfully complex and enlarged, bringing us to the highest development, in man.