“They did so, whilst I passed the whole night in meditation, with my face turned toward Makkah. As the morning drew near, a little light came into my mind, but I could not distinguish form or colour. After the morning prayers, I was taken to the shaik͟h who bade me inform him of my mental state. I replied that I had seen a light with my inward eye. On hearing this, the shaik͟h became animated and said: ‘Thy heart is dark, but the time is come when I will show myself clearly to thee.’ He then ordered me to sit down in front of him, and to impress his features on my mind. Then having blindfolded me, he ordered me to concentrate all my thoughts upon him. I did so, and in an instant, by the spiritual help of the shaik͟h, my heart opened. He asked me what I saw. I said that I saw another Tawakkul Beg and another Mullā Shāh. The bandage was then removed, and I saw the shaik͟h in front of me. Again they covered my face, and again I saw him with my inward eye. Astonished, I cried: ‘O master! whether I look with my bodily eye, or with my spiritual sight, it is always you I see.’ I then saw a dazzling figure approach me. The shaik͟h told me to say to the apparition, ‘What is your name?’ In my spirit I put the question, and the figure answered to my heart: ‘I am ʿAbdu ʾl-Qādir al-Jilānī, I have already aided thee, thy heart is opened.’ Much affected, I vowed that in honour of the saint, I would repeat the whole Qurʾān every Friday night.
“Mullā Shāh then said: ‘The spiritual world has been shown to thee in all its beauty.’ I then rendered perfect obedience to the shaik͟h. The following day I saw the Prophet, the chief Companions, and legions of saints and angels. After three months I entered the cheerless region in which the figures appeared no more. During the whole of this time the shaik͟h continued to explain to me the mystery of the doctrine of the Unity and of the knowledge of God; but as yet he did not show me the absolute reality. It was not until a year had passed that I arrived at the true conception of unity. Then in words such as these I told the shaik͟h of my inspiration. ‘I look upon the body as only dust and water, I regard neither my heart nor my soul, alas! that in separation from Thee (God) so much of my life has passed. Thou wert I and I knew it not.’ The shaik͟h was delighted, and said that the truth of the union with God was now clearly revealed to me. Then addressing those who were present, he said:—
“ ‘Tawakkul Beg learnt from me the doctrine of the Unity, his inward eye has been opened, the spheres of colours and of images have been shown to him. At length, he entered the colourless region. He has now attained to the Unity; doubt and scepticism henceforth have no power over him. No one sees the Unity with the outward eye, till the inward eye gains strength and power.’ ”
Each institution imposes on its darweshes the obligation to recite certain passages at different times of the day in private, as well as in common with others. Several have also practices which are peculiar to themselves, and which consist in dances, or rather religious circular movements. In each convent there is a room consecrated to these exercises. Nothing is simpler than its construction; it contains no ornaments of any nature; the middle of the room, turned towards Makkah, contains a niche or miḥrāb, in front of which is a small carpet, mostly made of the skin of a sheep, on which the shaik͟h of the community reclines; over the niche the name of the founder of the order is written. In some halls this inscription is surmounted by two others—one containing the Confession of Faith, and the other the words “Bismillāh,” &c. (“In the name of God, the most Clement and Merciful.”) In others are seen on the wall to the right and the left of the niche tablets, on which are written in large letters the name of God (Allāh), that of Muḥammad, and those of the four first K͟halīfahs. At others are seen the names of al-Ḥasan and al-Ḥusain, grandsons of the Prophet, and some verses of the Qurʾān, or others of a moral character.
The exercises which are followed in these halls are of various kinds, a description of which is given in the account of [ZIKR].
The more zealous faqīrs devote themselves to the most austere acts, and shut themselves up in their cells, so as to give themselves up for whole hours to prayer and meditation; the others pass very often a whole night in pronouncing the words Hū and Allāh, or rather the phrase, Lā ilāha illā ʾllāh. So as to drive away sleep from their eyes, some of them stand for whole nights in very uncomfortable positions. They sit with their feet on the ground, the two hands resting upon their knees: they fasten themselves in this attitude by a band of leather passed over their neck and legs. Others tie their hair with a cord to the ceiling, and call this usage Chilleh. There are some, also, who devote themselves to an absolute retirement from the world, and to the most rigid abstinence, living only on bread and water for twelve days successively, in honour of the twelve Imāms of the race of ʿAlī. This retirement is called K͟halwah. They pretend that the shaik͟h ʿAmr K͟halwatī was the first to follow it, and that he often practised it. They add that one day, having left his retirement, he heard a celestial voice saying, “O ʿAmr K͟halwatī, why dost thou abandon us?” and that, faithful to this oracle, he felt himself obliged to consecrate the rest of his days to works of penitence, and even to institute an order under the name of K͟halwatīs, a name signifying “living in retirement.” For this reason, darweshes of this order consider it their duty, more than any others, to live in solitude and abstinence. The more devoted among them observe sometimes a painful fast of forty days consecutively, called by them al-arbaʿūn (forty). Amongst them all their object is the expiation of their sins, the sanctification of their lives, and the glorification of Islām; the prosperity of the state, and the general salvation of the Muḥammadan people. The most ancient and the greatest of the orders, such as the Alwānīs, the Adhamīs, the Qādirīs, the Rufaʿīs, the Naqshbandīs, the K͟halwatīs, &c., are considered as the cardinal orders; for which reason they call themselves the Uṣūls, or “Originals.” They give to the others the names of the Furūʿ, or “Branches,” signifying thereby secondary ones, to designate their filiation or emanation from the first. The order of the Naqshbandīs and K͟halwatīs hold, however, the first rank in the temporal line; the one on account of the conformity of its statutes to the principles of the ten first confraternities, and to the lustre which causes the grandees and principal citizens of the empire to incorporate themselves in it; and the other, because of its being the source of the mother society which gave birth to many others. In the spiritual line, the order of the Qādirīs, Maulawīs, Bak͟htāshīs, Rufaʿīs, and the Sāʿdīs, are the most distinguished, especially the three first, on account of the eminent sanctity of their founders, of the multitude of the miracles attributed to them, and of the superabundance of the merit which is deemed especially attached to them.
Although all of them are considered as mendicant orders, no darwesh is allowed to beg, especially in public. The only exception is among the Bak͟htāshīs, who deem it meritorious to live by alms; and many of these visit not only private houses, but even the streets, public squares, bureaux, and public houses, for the purpose of recommending themselves to the charity of their brethren.
They only express their requests by the words “Shayid Ullāh,” a corruption from “Shayun li-ʾllāh,” which means, “Something for the love of God.” Many of these make it a rule to live only by the labour of their hands, in imitation of Ḥājī Bak͟htāsh, their founder; and, like him, they make spoons, ladles, graters, and other utensils, of wood or marble. It is these, also, who fashion the pieces of marble, white or veined, which are used as collars or buckles for the belts of all the darweshes of their order, and the kashkūls, or shell cups, in which they are obliged to ask alms.
Although in no wise bound by any oaths, all being free to change their community, and even to return to the world, and there to adopt any occupation which may please their fancy, it is rarely that anyone makes use of this liberty. Each one regards it as a sacred duty to end his days in the dress of his order. To this spirit of poverty and perseverance, in which they are so exemplary, must be added that of perfect submission to their superior. This latter is elevated by the deep humility which accompanies all their conduct, not only in the interior of the cloisters, but even in private life. One never meets them anywhere but with head bent and the most respectful countenance. They never salute anyone, particularly the Maulawīs, and the Bak͟htāshīs, except by the exclamation, “Yā Hū!” The words Ai bi-ʾllāh, “thanks to God,” frequently are used in their conversation; and the more devout or enthusiastic speak only of dreams, visions, celestial spirits, supernatural objects, &c.
They are seldom exposed to the trouble and vexations of ambition, because the most ancient darweshes are those who may aspire to the grade of shaik͟h, or superior of the convent. The shaik͟hs are named by their respective generals, called the Raisu ʾl-Mashāʾik͟h (chief of shaik͟hs). Those of the Maulawīs have the distinctive title of Cheleby Efendi. All reside in the same cities which contain the ashes of the founders of their orders, called by the name of Āstāneh signifying “the court.” They are subordinate to the Muftī of the capital, who exercises absolute jurisdiction over them. In the Turkish Empire the Shaik͟hu ʾl-Islām has the right of removing all the generals of the various orders, even those of the Qādirīs, the Maulawīs, and of the Bak͟htāshīs, although the dignity be hereditary in their family, on account of their all three being sprung from the blood of the same founders of their orders. The Muftī has likewise the right to confirm the shaik͟hs who may be nominated by any of the generals of the orders.