The Qurʾān states that the angels whom Abraham received appeared as ordinary Arabs, and he was astonished when they declined to eat. According to the Talmud, they also “appeared to him no more than Arabs;”[45] but another passage adds: “The angels descended and did eat. Are they, then, said to have really eaten? No! but they appeared as if they did eat and drink.” As a proof of Muḥammad’s uncertainty respecting the history of Abraham, we add, that the doubt regarding their having a son in their old age is expressed in the Qurʾān by Abraham instead of Sarah, and she is made to laugh at the promise of a son, before it was given. Again, the command to offer his son is given to Abraham before Isaac is born or promised, so that the son who was to be offered up could be none other than Ishmael, who was spoken of immediately before as the “meek youth!” Muḥammadan divines are, however, not agreed whether Ishmael was to be offered up, although it is reported by some that the horns of the ram, which was sacrificed in his stead, were preserved at Makkah, his dwelling-place! [[ISHMAEL].] We may account for Muḥammad’s reckoning Ishmael among the prophets and patriarchs, from his being considered the patriarch of the Arabs and the founder of the Kaʿbah.
Among the sons of Jacob, Joseph occupies the pre-eminence. His history is mainly the same as in the Bible, embellished with the fabulous tradition of the Jews. Among these is the assumption that Joseph “would have sinned had he not seen the evident demonstration of his Lord.” That this is borrowed is clear from the following fable: Rabbi Jochanan saith, “Both intended to commit sin: seizing him by the garment, she said, Lie with me.… Then appeared to him the form of his father at the window, who called to him, Joseph! Joseph! the names of thy brothers shall be engraven upon the stones of the Ephod, also thine own: wilt thou that it shall be erased?”[46] This is almost literally repeated by a Muslim commentary to the [Sūrah xii. 24]. The fable of Potiphar’s wife inviting the Egyptian ladies to a feast, to see Joseph, because they had laughed at her, and of their being so overcome with admiration of Joseph,[47] that they accidentally cut their hands in eating fruit, is exactly so related in a very ancient Hebrew book, from which Muḥammad doubtless derived it. The story about the garment being rent, and the setting up of an evidence of guilt or innocence respecting it, is also borrowed, to the very letter from the same source.[48] In this Sūrah it is also stated, that “the devil made him (Joseph) forget the remembrance of his Lord,” in perfect harmony with the Jewish tradition, “Vain speech tendeth to destruction; though Joseph twice urged the chief butler to remember him, yet he had to remain two years longer in prison.”[49] The seeking protection from man is here represented as the instigation of Satan. [[JOSEPH].]
The Qurʾān causes Jacob to tell his sons to enter at different gates, and the same injunction is given by the Patriarch in the Jewish writings: “Jacob said to them, Enter not through one and the same gate.”[50] The exclamation of the sons of Israel, when they found the cup in Benjamin’s sack—“Has he stolen? so has his brother also”—are clearly a perversion of the words which the Jewish traditions put into their mouths: “Behold a thief, son of a female thief!” referring to the stealing of the Seraphim by Rachel.[51] Muḥammad, again, acquaints us that Jacob knew by divine revelation that his son Joseph was still alive, and Jewish tradition enables us to point out whence he obtained the information. We read in the Midrash Jalkut, “An unbeliever asked our master, Do the dead continue to live? your parents do not believe it, and will ye receive it? Of Jacob, it is said, he refused to be comforted; had he believed that the dead still lived, would he not have been comforted? But he answered, Fool, he knew by the Holy Ghost that he still really lived, and about a living person people need no comfort.”[52]
Muḥammad made but scanty allusions to the early patriarchs, Joseph only excepted; but concerning Moses, it was his interest to be more profuse in his communications, possibly from the desire to be considered like him, as he is generally thought to have taken that prophet as his model. Among the oppressions which Pharaoh exercised towards the Jews, are named his ordering their children to be cast into the water. Moses, the son of ʿImrān was put into an ark by his mother; Pharaoh’s wife, observing the child, rescues him from death, and gives him back to his mother to nurse. When Moses was grown up, he sought to assist his oppressed brethren, and kills an Egyptian; being the next day reminded of this deed by an Hebrew, he flees to Midian, and marries the daughter of an inhabitant of that country.[53] When about to leave Midian, he sees a burning bush, and, approaching it, receives a call to go to Egypt to exhort Pharaoh, and perform miracles; he accepts the mission, but requests the aid of his brother Aaron.[54] Pharaoh, however remains an infidel, and gathers his sorcerers together, who perform only inferior miracles; and, in spite of Pharaoh’s threats, they become believers.[55] Judgment falls upon the Egyptians; they are drowned, whilst the Israelites are saved.[56] A rock yields water. Moses receives the law,[57] and desires to see the glory of God.[58] During Moses’ absence, the Israelites make a golden calf, which he destroys, and reducing it to powder, makes them drink it.[59] After this, Moses chooses seventy men as assistants.[60] The spies sent to Canaan are all wicked with the exception of two: the people being deceived by them, must wander forty years in the desert.[61] Korah, on quarrelling with Moses, is swallowed up by the earth.[62] [[KORAH].] The marvellous journey of Moses with his servant is not to be omitted in this summary of events.[63] Among the details deserve to be mentioned, that Hāmān and Korah were counsellors of Pharaoh.[64] It is not surprising that Muḥammad should associate Hāmān with Pharaoh as an enemy of the Jews, since he cared little when individuals lived, provided they could be introduced with advantage. Korah, according to Jewish tradition, was chief agent or treasurer to Pharaoh.[65] The ante-exodus persecution of the Jews is ascribed to a dream of Pharaoh.[66] This is in exact accordance with Jewish tradition, which, as Canon Churton remarks, has in part the sanction of [Acts vii]. and [Hebrews xi]., though not found in Exodus: “The sorcerers said to Pharaoh, A boy shall be born who will lead the Israelites out of Egypt. Then thought he, Cast all male children into the river, and he will be cast in among them.”[67] The words ([Exod. xi. 7]), “I will call one of the Hebrew women,” produced the Rabbinical fiction, “Why just a Hebrew woman? This shows that he was handed to all the Egyptian women; but he would not drink, for God said, The mouth which shall once speak with me, should it drink what is unclean?”[68] This was too valuable for Muḥammad to omit from the Qurʾān.[69] Although it is nowhere said in the Bible that the sign of the leprous hand was wrought in the presence of Pharaoh, yet the Qurʾān relates it as having there taken place.[70] And in this also it was preceded by Jewish tradition—“He put his hand into his bosom, and withdrew it leprous, white as snow; they also put their hands into their bosoms and withdrew them leprous, white as snow.”[71] Again, among Moses’ own people, none but his own tribe believed him.[72] This Muḥammad doubtless inferred from the statement of the Rabbis: “The tribe of Levi was exempted from hard labour.”[73] Among the sorcerers of Egypt, who first asked for their wages, and then became believers, when their serpents were swallowed by that of Moses,[74] Pharaoh himself was chief.[75] Here, again, Muḥammad is indebted to Judaism: “Pharaoh, who lived in the days of Moses, was a great sorcerer.”[76] In other places of the Qurʾān, Pharaoh claims divinity,[77] and Jewish tradition makes him declare, “Already from the beginning ye speak falsehood, for I am Lord of the world, I have made myself as well as the Nile”; as it is said of him ([Ezek. xxix. 3]), “Mine is the river, and I have made it.”[78] The Arab prophet was much confused with regard to the plagues; in some places he enumerates nine,[79] in others only five, the first of which is said to be the Flood![80] As the drowning in the Red Sea happened after the plagues, he can only allude to the Deluge.
The following somewhat dark and uncertain passage[81] concerning Pharaoh has caused commentators great perplexity. It is stated that Pharaoh pursued the Israelites until actually drowning, when, confessing himself a Muslim, he was saved alive from the bottom of the sea, to be a “witness for ages to come.”[82] But we find that it is merely a version of a Jewish fable: “Perceive the great power of repentance! Pharaoh, King of Egypt, uttered very wicked words—Who is the God whose voice I shall obey? ([Exod. v. 2].) Yet as he repented, saying, ‘Who is like unto thee among the gods?’ ([xv. 11]) God saved him from death; for it saith, Almost had I stretched out my hands and destroyed; but God let him live, that he might declare his power and strength.”[83]
As Jewish commentators add to [Exod. xv. 27], where we read of twelve fountains being found near Elim, that each of the tribes had a well,[84] so Muḥammad transposes the statement, and declares that twelve fountains sprang from the rock which had been smitten by Moses at Rephidim.[85] The Rabbinical fable, that God covered the Israelites with Mount Sinai, on the occasion of the law-giving,[86] is thus amplified in the Qurʾān: “We shook the mountain over them, as though it had been a covering, and they imagined that it was falling upon them; and we said, ‘Receive the law which we have brought unto you with reverence.’”[87] The Qurʾān adds that the Israelites, now demanding to see God, die, and are raised again.[88] It will not be difficult to trace the origin of this figment. When the Israelites demanded two things from God—that they might see his glory and hear his voice—both were granted to them. Then it is added, “These things, however, they had no power to resist; as they came to Mount Sinai, and He appeared unto them, their souls escaped by His speaking, as it is said, ‘My soul escaped as He spake.’ The Torah, however, interceded for them, saying, ‘Does a king give his daughter to marriage and kill his household? The whole world rejoices (at my appearance), and thy children (the Israelites) shall they die?’ At once their souls returned; therefore it is said, The doctrine of God is perfect, and brings back the soul.”[89] In the matter of the golden calf, the Qurʾān follows as usual the fabulous account of the Rabbinical traditions. Both represent Aaron as having been nearly killed when at first resisting the entreaty of the people. The Sanhedrin relates: “Aaron saw Chur slaughtered before his eyes (who opposed them), and he thought, If I do not yield to them they will deal with me as they dealt with Chur.”[90] According to another passage in the Qurʾān, an Israelite named as-Sāmirī enticed them, and made the calf.[91] Like the wandering Jew in Christian fable, as-Sāmirī is punished by Moses with endless wandering, and he is compelled to repeat the words, “Touch me not.”[92] Jewish traditions make Mikah assist in manufacturing the idol calf;[93] but Muḥammad either derived as-Sāmirī from Samael, or, as the Samaritans are stated by the Arab writers to have said, “Touch me not,” he may have considered as-Sāmirī as the author of the sect of the Samaritans. That the calf thus produced by as-Sāmirī from the ornaments of the people, lowed on being finished,[94] is evidently a repetition of the following Jewish tradition: “The calf came forth ([Exod. xxxii. 24]) roaring, and the Israelites saw it. Rabbi Jehuda says, Samael entered the calf and roared to deceive the Israelites.” The addition, that the tribe of Levi remained faithful to God, is both Scriptural and Rabbinical.[95] The matter of Korah is honoured with singular embellishments; for instance, Korah had such riches, that from ten to forty strong men were required to carry the keys of his treasures.[96] Abū ʾl-Fidāʾ says forty mules were required to convey the keys. Jewish tradition is still more extravagant: “Joseph buried three treasures in Egypt, one of which became known to Korah. Riches are turned to destruction to him that possesses them ([Eccles. v. 12]), and this may well be applied to Korah. The keys to the treasures of Korah made a burden for 300 white mules.”[97]
The accusation from which God cleared his servant Moses, of which the Qurʾān makes mention, was occasioned by Korah. “Abu Aliah says it refers to Korah hiring a harlot to reproach Moses before all the people, upon which God struck her dumb, and destroyed Korah, which cleared Moses from the charge.”[98] This is unquestionably an amplification of the following passage: “Moses heard, and fell on his face. What was it he heard? That they accused him of having to do with another man’s wife.”[99] Others conceive the unjust charge from which Moses was cleared, to have been that of murdering Aaron on Mount Hor, because he and Eleazar only were present when Aaron died! That they had recourse to Jewish tradition, will appear from the subjoined extract: “The whole congregation saw that Aaron was dead; and when Moses and Eleazar came down from the mountain, the whole congregation gathered together, asking, Where is Aaron? But they said, He is dead. How can the Angel of Death touch a man, by whom he was resisted and restrained, as it is said, He stood between the dead and the living, and the plague was stayed? If ye bring him, it is well; if not, we will stone you. Moses prayed, Lord of the World, remove from me this suspicion! Then God opened and showed them Aaron’s body.” And to this the passage applies: “The whole congregation saw,” &c. ([Numb. xx. 29], [75].) [[MOSES].]
The time of the Judges is passed over unnoticed, and from the manner in which the election of a king is introduced,[100] it would appear that Muḥammad was ignorant of the long interval between Moses and Saul.[101] [[SAUL].] Of David’s history, only his victory over Goliath and his fall through Bathsheba are recorded. [[DAVID].] The Traditions make mention of the brevity of his slumbers, and commentators of the Qurʾān affirm the same: “The Apostle of God said David slept half the night; he then rose for a third part, and slept again a sixth part.” This is derived from the Rabbis, who assert that the king slept only for the term of “sixty breathings.”[102] Of the wisdom of Solomon, the Qurʾān makes particular mention; and to support the statement, adds, that he understood the language of birds; this was also the opinion of the Jewish doctors. The winds, or, more probable, spirits, obeyed him; and demons, birds, and beasts, formed part of his standing army.[103] Jewish commentators record that “demons of various kinds, and evil spirits were subject to him.”[104] The story of the Queen of Sheba, and the adventures of the lapwing,[105] are only abridgments from Jewish traditions. With regard to the fable, that demons assisted Solomon in the building of the Temple, and, being deceived, continued it after his death, we may here add that Muḥammad borrowed it directly from the Jews.[106] When Solomon became haughty, one of his many demons ruled in his stead, till he repented. The Sanhedrin also refers to this degradation: “In the beginning Solomon reigned also over the upper worlds”; as it is said, “Solomon sat on the throne of God”; after that only over his staff, as it is said, “What profit hath a man of all his labour?” and still later, “This is my portion of all my labour.”[107] On repenting, he maimed his horses, considering them a useless luxury. In the Talmud and the Scriptures, we find allusion to his obtaining them as well as to their being prohibited.[108] [[SOLOMON].]
Elijah is among the few characters which Muḥammad notices after Solomon; nothing, indeed, is mentioned of his rapture to heaven, yet he is considered a great prophet.[109] Among the Jews, Elijah appears in human form to the pious on earth, he visits them in their places of worship, and communicates revelations from God to eminent Rabbis. In this character Elijah also appears in Muslim divinity. [[ELIJAH].] Jonah is the “man of the fish”;[110] Muḥammad relates his history in his usual style, not omitting his journey to Nineveh, or the gourd which afforded him shade. [[JONAH].] Job, too, with his suffering and cure is noticed[111] [[JOB]]; also the three men who were cast into a burning fiery furnace[112] ([Dan. iii. 8]); the turning back of the shadow of degrees on the occasion of Hezekiah’s recovery.[113]
(See Arnold’s Islam and Christianity, Longmans, London, 1874, p. 116 seqq. Dr. J. M. Arnold gives in many instances the original Hebrew of his quotations from the Talmud.)