Lieutenant-Colonel W. F. Butler, C.B., remarks:—
“The Goth might ravage Italy, but the Goth came forth purified from the flames which he himself had kindled. The Saxon swept Britain, but the music of the Celtic heart softened his rough nature, and wooed him into less churlish habits. Visigoth and Frank, Heruli and Vandal, blotted out their voracity in the very light of the civilisation they had striven to extinguish. Even the Hun, wildest Tartar from the Scythian waste, was touched and softened in his wicker encampment amid Pannonian plains; but the Turk—wherever his scymitar reached—degraded, defiled, and defamed; blasting into eternal decay Greek, Roman and Latin civilisation, until, when all had gone, he sat down, satiated with savagery, to doze for two hundred years into hopeless decrepitude.” (Good Words for September 1880.)
| Muhamedis Imposturæ. W. Bedwell. London | 1615 |
| A Lytell Treatyse of the Turkes Law called Alcoran. W. De Worde. London. | No date. |
| Mahomet Unmasked. W. Bedwell. London | 1642 |
| The Alcoran of Mahomet. Alex. Ross. London | 1642 |
| Religion and Manners of Mahometans. Joseph Pitts. Exon | 1704 |
| History of the Saracens. S. Ockley. London | 1708 |
| Four Treatises by Reland and others. London | 1712 |
| The True Nature of the Imposture. Dean Prideaux. London | 1718 |
| Abulfeda. Translated into Latin. J. Gagnier. London | 1723 |
| Muhammadanism Explained. Joseph Morgan. London | 1723 |
| Life of Mahomet. Count Boulainvilliers. Translated. London | 1731 |
| Translation of Koran and Preliminary Discourse. G. Sale. London | 1734 |
| Reflections on Mohammedism (sic) Anon. London | 1735 |
| The Morality of the East, extracted from the Koran. Anon. London | 1766 |
| Roman Empire. E. Gibbon. London | 1776 |
| The Koran. Translated. Savary | 1782 |
| Bampton Lectures. Rev. J. White. Oxford | 1784 |
| The Hidayah. Translated by C. Hamilton. London | 1791 |
| The Rise of Mahomet accounted for. N. Alcock. London | 1796 |
| Life of Mahomet. Anon. London | 1799 |
| The Mishkāt. Translated by Matthews. Calcutta | 1809 |
| History of Muhammedanism. C. Mills. London | 1817 |
| Christianity compared with Hinduism and Muhamadanism. London | 1823 |
| The Muhammedan System. Rev. W. H. Mills | 1828 |
| Mahometanism Unveiled. Rev. C. Forster. London | 1829 |
| An Apology for the Life of Mohammed. G. Higgins. London | 1829 |
| A Reply to Higgins. R. M. Beverley. Beverley | 1829 |
| Travels in Arabia. J. L. Burckhardt. London | 1829 |
| Controversial Tracts. Rev. H. Martyn. Edited by S. Lee. | No date or place. |
| Animadversions on Higgins. Rev. P. Inchbald. Doncaster | 1830 |
| Notes on Bedouins and Wahhabis. J. L. Burckhardt. London | 1830 |
| Observations on the Musulmans. Mrs. Meer Hasan Ali. London | 1832 |
| Qanoon-e-Islam. Dr. Herklots. London | 1832 |
| History of Muhammadanism. W. C. Taylor. London | 1834 |
| History of the Wahhabies. Sir H. J. Brydges. London | 1834 |
| Muhammedan Dynasties in Spain. Al Makkari. Translated. London | 1840 |
| The Hero as Prophet. Thomas Carlyle. London | 1840 |
| Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians. E. W. Lane. London | 1842 |
| Ibn Khallikan’s Biographical Dictionary. M. G. De Slane. Translated. London | 1843 |
| Selections from the Kur-án. E. W. Lane. London | 1843 |
| Life of Mohammed. Rev. George Bush. New York | 1844 |
| The Relation of Islam to the Gospel. Dr. J. A. Moehler. Translated by J. P. Menge. Calcutta | 1847 |
| Life of Mahomet. Washington Irving. London | 1850 |
| Life of Mohammed. By Abulfeda. Translated by Rev. W. Murray. Elgin. | No date. |
| Muhammadan Law of Sale. N. B. E. Baillie. London | 1850 |
| Life of Mohammad. A. Sprenger. Calcutta | 1851 |
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| Arabian Nights with Notes. E. W. Lane. London | 1859 |
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The ceremonies of the Muḥarram differ much in different places and countries. The following is a graphic description of the observance of the Muḥarram at Ispahan in the year 1811, which has been taken, with some slight alterations from Morier’s Second Journey through Persia:—
The tragical termination of al-Ḥusain’s life, commencing with his flight from al-Madīnah and terminating with his death on the plain of Karbalāʾ, has been drawn up in the form of a drama, consisting of several parts, of which one is performed by actors on each successive day of the mourning. The last part, which is appointed for the Roz-i-Qatl, comprises the events of the day on which he met his death, and is acted with great pomp before the King, in the largest square of the city. The subject, which is full of affecting incidents, would of itself excite great interest in the breasts of a Christian audience; but allied as it is with all the religious and national feelings of the Persians, it awakens their strongest passions. Al-Ḥusain would be a hero in our eyes; in theirs he is a martyr. The vicissitudes of his life, his dangers in the desert, his fortitude, his invincible courage, and his devotedness at the hour of his death, are all circumstances upon which the Persians dwell with rapture, and which excite in them an enthusiasm not to be diminished by lapse of time. The celebration of this mourning keeps up in their minds the remembrance of those who destroyed him, and consequently their hatred for all Musalmāns who do not partake of their feelings. They execrate Yazīd and curse ʿUmar with such rancour, that it is necessary to have witnessed the scenes that are exhibited in their cities to judge of the degree of fanaticism which possesses them at this time. I have seen some of the most violent of them, as they vociferated, “O Ḥusain!” walk about the streets almost naked, with only their loins covered, and their bodies streaming with blood, by the voluntary cuts which they have given to themselves, either as acts of love, anguish, or mortification. Such must have been the cuttings of which we read in Holy Writ, which were forbidden to the Israelites by Moses ([Lev. xix. 28], [Deut. xiv. 1]), and these extravagances, I conjecture, must resemble the practices of the priests of Baal, who cried aloud and cut themselves after this manner with knives and lancets, till the blood gushed out upon them. [1 Kings xviii. 28]; see also [Jeremiah xvi. 5, 6, and 7].
The preparations which were made throughout the city consisted in erecting large tents, that are there called takiyah, in the streets and open places, in fitting them up with black linen, and furnishing them with objects emblematical of the mourning. These tents are erected either at the joint expense of the district, or by men of consequence, as an act of devotion; and all ranks of people have a free access to them. The expense of a takiyah consists in the hire of a mulla, or priest, of actors and their clothes, and in the purchase of lights. Many there are who seize this opportunity of atoning for past sins, or of rendering thanks to heaven for some blessing, by adding charity to the good act of erecting a takiyah, and distribute gratuitous food to those who attend it.