The climate of Kashmir is the same as that of the interior valleys of the Himalaya, but modified by its extreme western position, which brings it within the influence of the spring rains which prevail in Affghanistan and the countries on the lower mountain course of the Indus. There are at least four months of winter; and in general a good deal of snow falls. March and April are very rainy; the summer months mostly dry and fine. The periodical rains of India cannot be said to extend into Kashmir; but in July and August showers and thunder-storms are said to be frequent. The spring and autumn are unhealthy seasons. In the former, the cold rainy weather affects those who have already suffered from the malaria produced by the action of a powerful sun on neglected swamps. The abandonment of cultivation, in consequence of the long oppression of the country under a foreign government, has been the cause of the increase of marshy ground. The river in seasons of flood rises higher than the level of the lowest portion of the alluvial land, and is only excluded (as in Holland) by means of artificial works along the course of the river. By the omission to repair these bunds, or dykes, a large extent of country which might be under cultivation is left in a state of swamp.
VEGETATION OF KASHMIR.
April, 1848.
There is no natural forest on any part of the open plain of Kashmir, and the cultivated trees are not numerous; the plane, poplar, and willow are all common, with numerous fruit-trees, chiefly walnuts, apples, apricots, cherries, and quinces. A mulberry is also common, the dried specimens of which are in no way distinguishable from those of the common white mulberry of Europe, with which I have compared it. The vines are trained up the poplar-trees, rising to their very tops, and hanging down from their summits. A species of Celtis, which is commonly planted around the town, is, I think, the most tropical of all the Kashmirian trees, being common in the warmer valleys of the outer Himalayas; it is, however, I think, Celtis australis, L., a species which is a native of western Asia and eastern Europe, and appears to find its eastern limit in the Himalaya.
At the time of my arrival in Kashmir, the fruit-trees were in full blossom; the wild vegetation had, however, made very little progress, only the earliest plants being in flower. The spring flora was eminently European in character; not only the genera, but many of the species, being identical with those of our own island. Cruciferæ were the most abundant natural order; and, among many others, I collected Draba verna, Capsella, Erysimum, Alliaria, Turritis glabra, and European species of Lepidium, Thlaspi, Alyssum, and Sisymbrium. Other common forms were Lycopsis arvensis, Lithospermum arvense, Myosotis collina, Scandix Pecten, Ranunculus Philonotis, Anagallis arvensis, Euphorbia Helioscopia, and several species of Veronica. None of the annual plants were Indian forms, though a few of them were such as occur commonly in the plains in the cold season. The shrubby vegetation was very limited: a Juniper (J. communis), a Cotoneaster, Rubus, Rosa Webbiana, Zizyphus, Elæagnus, Daphne, and two species of Berberis, were the most common. A few straggling trees of Pinus excelsa, which grew on the northern face of the low hill called Solomon's Throne, were the only pines which I saw in any part of the open valley.
CHAPTER X.
Environs of Kashmir—City lake—Gardens of Shalimar and Dilawer Khan—Pampur—Avantipura—Platforms of lacustrine clay—Mountain of Wasterwan—Ancient city—Clay, with shells and fragments of pottery—Ancient temple imbedded in clay—Lakes caused by subsidence—Islamabad—Shahabad—Vegetation—Vernag—Banahal Pass—Valley of Banahal—Tropical vegetation—Pass above Chenab Valley—Nasmon—Jhula, or Swing-bridge—Balota—Ladhe ke Dhar—Katti—Fort of Landar—Mir—Kirmichi—Tertiary sandstones—Dhuns—Seda—Jamu.
During my stay in Kashmir, besides the necessary ceremonial of complimentary visits, my chief occupation was visiting the principal places in the vicinity. From my residence in the Sheikh Bagh I had easy access to the river, as well as to the canal by which it communicates with the lake. A broad road, three-quarters of a mile in length, shaded on both sides by very fine poplar-trees, runs from the eastern end of the town, parallel to this canal, as far as the hill called the Takht, at the foot of which is situated the passage by which the lake discharges its waters into the canal. The weather was very favourable, the spring rains having terminated a day or two before my arrival. The Kashmiris are accomplished boatmen, a great part of the population living upon the water; and as most of the conspicuous objects around the town are only accessible by water, I gave pretty constant employment to a boat's crew whom I hired during my stay.
LAKE OF KASHMIR.
April, 1848.
My first visit was to the lake, and to the celebrated gardens on its northern shore, which were the delight of the emperors who made Kashmir their retreat from the heat and cares of Delhi and Lahore. The southern part of the lake is very shallow, and I sailed along narrow channels, which separated large patches of tall reeds, among which a very narrow-leaved Typha and an Arundo were the commonest plants. Three or four species of Potamogeton were abundant in the lake, just coming into flower, but most of the water-plants were only beginning to vegetate. I saw three or four flowers of a water-lily (Nymphæa alba), and could just recognize Villarsia nymphæoides, Menyanthes trifoliata, and Trapa, all of which had been recorded by previous travellers as natives of Kashmir. I looked anxiously for Nelumbium, but saw no signs of it, except the withered capsules of the previous year, many of which I observed floating on the lake.
GARDENS OF KASHMIR.
April, 1848.