France.—The celebrated Polytechnic School at Paris was established by the National Convention, September 28, 1794. By a decree of July 16, 1804, Napoleon placed it under a military régime. No attempt being made to impart a general education, candidates are required to have a thorough general knowledge before they are admitted. The preliminary examination of candidates for admission comprises mathematics, physics, chemistry, history, German, etc.; in fact, the candidate to be successful should have the degree of Bachelor of Science. Admission is open to competition; a board of examiners passes through the country once every year, and examines all who present themselves, possessing the requisite qualifications of age, etc. A list is made out from the proceedings of the board, and the number of candidates highest in order of merit for whom there are vacancies admitted. The age of admission is from sixteen to twenty years, or if the candidate is in the army, to twenty-five. This school prepares students for various branches of the public service, for the staff, engineers, artillery, for the corps of hydrographical engineers, engineers of roads and bridges and of mines, the department of powder and saltpetre, etc. The number of cadets is usually about 350, and the course of instruction two years. After the final examination the first 30 or 40 candidates usually select civil employment under the government, those next in merit choose the artillery and engineers, and are sent to the School of Application, to pass through a technical course. The remaining students either fail to qualify, and leave the school, or receive commissions in the line, subordinate situations in the government service, civil or colonial, or they retire into civil life altogether.
The Special Military School at St. Cyr, near Versailles, was established for the instruction of candidates for commissions in cavalry and infantry. The age of admission is the same as for the Polytechnic School, and pupils are entitled to partial or entire state aid if they need it, as are also those of the Polytechnic. The course of instruction is two years, at the end of which time the more promising students pass to the Staff School, and thence, after a thorough course, to the [état-major] of the army; the remaining students pass as subalterns into the cavalry and infantry, selecting the arm of the service in which they desire to serve according to the order of merit in which they graduate. There are also the School of Application for Engineers and Artillery, the School of Application for the Staff, the Cavalry School at Saumur, for one year’s instruction to officers of that arm, and the School of Musketry at Vincennes.
Prussia.—The Prussian system of military education differs from that of France, in that competition is but sparingly resorted to, the object being to give a good general and professional education to all the officers, rather than a specially excellent training to a select few. For this purpose there are established seven cadet schools, one senior, at Berlin, and six junior, situated at Bensburg, Culm, Oranienstein, Ploen, Potsdam, and Wahlstatt. The age of admission to the junior schools is from ten to eleven years, and the usual course of instruction is for four years, and two or three at the senior school, followed by the finishing term of nine months at a division school, when graduates are eligible to commissions. Some, however, are sent to the army to earn their commissions as other candidates. Others pass an additional year at the senior cadet school, in which case the term at the division school is dispensed with. After completing their course at the junior schools, students pass to the senior school without examination. They may also be admitted to the senior school without passing through the junior grade, provided they come up to the required standard of qualification. Aspirants for commissions must enter the ranks, and within six months pass a good examination in general and liberal knowledge if they are not graduates of a cadet school. Those who are graduates are not examined. After some further service the candidate goes for nine months to one of the division schools, which are eight in number, situated at Anclam, Cassel, Engers, Erfurt, Hanover, Metz, Neisse, and Potsdam. Here he completes his professional education, and if he passes the final examination, is eligible for the next vacancy in the line, but cannot be commissioned unless the officers of the corps are willing to accept him as a comrade. Candidates for commissions in the artillery and engineer corps, after graduating from the cadet school or passing an examination from the army, must pass nine months at the Artillery and Engineer School, after which they receive a provisional appointment as sub-lieutenants. Upon graduating, after two more terms of nine months each, they are commissioned as lieutenants. But the culmination of Prussian military education is the Staff School, or War Academy, which presents the highest prizes in the profession, and competition for which is open to all officers of the army who have had three years’ service, and can produce testimonials of good conduct, ability, etc., from their superiors. Admission is by competitive examination, usually about 40 of the applicants being selected. The course of study lasts three years. During three months of each year the officers are sent to do military duty with arms of service or corps not their own. Of the 40 who pass through the Staff School each year, 8 or 10 only are sent to the topographical department of the staff. There they serve two or three years, at the expiration of which time two are selected from the number, and appointed captains on the staff. The remainder return to their regiments or corps, sometimes receiving appointments in the division schools.
Austria.—The Austrian military system of training is very elaborate, and commences at an early age,—boys intended for military service beginning their professional almost contemporaneously with their general education. There are schools of various orders for training non-commissioned officers and for officers, and senior departments for imparting more extended instruction to both classes. Candidates for appointment as non-commissioned officers pass by competition through the lower houses, where they remain till eleven years old, the upper houses, which detain them till fifteen, and the school companies, whence, after actual apprenticeship to service, a few pupils pass to the academies as aspirants for commissions, and the others are drafted into the service as non-commissioned officers. For the education of officers there are four cadet houses, each containing 200 pupils. The boys are pledged to the service by their parents at the age of eleven, after which the state takes charge of them. At fifteen they pass according to qualification to the academy for the line, the engineer or artillery academy, and four years later receive their commissions in the arms of the service for which they have graduated. The young officer’s chance of entering the Staff School—and therefore the staff—depends upon his place at the final academic examination.
The Staff School consists of 30 pupils selected by competitive examination from all arms of the service, 15 entering each year. The course of instruction is two years. To be qualified for admission a candidate must have served two years with his regiment, and be over twenty-one and under twenty-six years of age. The students receive appointments in the staff corps according to the order of merit, immediately after the final examination, if there are vacancies; if there are none, they return to their regiments until vacancies occur. If the successful candidate is a second lieutenant, he is promoted to the rank of first lieutenant; if a first lieutenant, he is promoted captain after three years’ service.
Russia.—Has 22 military colleges for the guards and line, containing over 7000 cadets, a school of ensigns for the guards, an artillery and an engineer school, averaging over 8000 military students. There is also an imperial staff school, into which 20 or 25 officers enter each year after examination. The term of instruction is for two years. Upon graduation, the most distinguished scholar is at once promoted to the rank of captain on the staff, and all the graduates are, from time to time, as vacancies occur, attached to the staff, but not immediately promoted in it.
Italy, Spain, and other powers have also their military academies, but those already given may be considered a fair type of all. It need only be stated that the educational status of the Italian officers is considered very high.
The United States.—The Military Academy at West Point is the only government institution in the United States for the military training of cadets and their preparation for the duties of officers. The necessity for such an institution was recognized at an early date in the history of the country. A committee of Congress which had visited the Continental army at New York recommended the establishment of a military academy in their report, October 3, 1776. The subject was subsequently brought to the notice of Congress on several occasions, but without result until 1794, when provision was made for the establishment of 4 battalions of engineers and artillerists, 8 cadets to be attached to each battalion. The number was increased to 56 in 1798, and provision made for procuring books and apparatus for their instruction. By the act of March 16, 1802, determining the military peace establishment, the artillerists and engineers were made two distinct corps; 40 cadets were attached to one regiment of artillery, and 10 to the corps of engineers, said corps to be stationed at West Point, and to constitute a military academy. The act also provided that the senior engineer officer present should be superintendent of the academy, and authorized the Secretary of War to procure the necessary books, apparatus, etc., for the institution. Another act, dated February 28, 1803, authorized the President to appoint teachers of French and drawing. At the expiration of five years, however, further legislation was deemed necessary, and on April 12, 1808, a bill was passed which added 156 members to the corps of cadets. By the act of April 19, 1812, it was declared that the Military Academy should consist of the corps of engineers, the teachers of French and drawing already provided for, a professor of natural philosophy, a professor of mathematics, and a professor of engineering, with an assistant for each professor. Provision was also made for a chaplain, who was to officiate as professor of geography, physics, and history. The number of cadets was limited to 260; the requirements for admission, terms of study and service, and rate of pay and emoluments were also prescribed. But the commencement of its great success as an educational institution, and the reputation which the academy possesses for its elevating and disciplinary government, dates from July, 1817, when Brevet Maj. Sylvanus Thayer, of the engineer corps, assumed command as superintendent. He was an early graduate of the academy, had served with distinction in the war of 1812, and having studied in the military schools of France, had acquired matured views for the government of such an institution. He organized and perfected a system of management, which he carried into successful operation for sixteen years, and which, with but little modification, is followed to-day. In 1818 the department of geography, history, and ethics was organized, and the chaplain appointed professor; the clerical and secular duties thus combined have ever since remained inseparable. A professorship of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology was created by act of July 5, 1838, and an assistant authorized, “to be taken from the officers of the line, or cadets.” In May, 1846, the teachers of French and drawing were styled professors, and the appointment of assistants was authorized. In 1857 a professorship of the Spanish language was established. By act of Congress approved June 23, 1879, whenever a vacancy occurs in the office of professor of the French or Spanish language, both these offices shall cease, and the remaining one of the two professors shall be professor of modern languages. A professorship of law has also been established, which is held by an officer of the bureau of military justice. The academic staff consist of the superintendent; the commandant of cadets, who is instructor of artillery, cavalry, and infantry tactics, and is charged with the discipline of the cadets, having usually 8 officers detailed from the line of the army as assistants; and of the professors of civil and military engineering and science of war, of natural and experimental philosophy, of mathematics, of history, geography, and ethics (chaplain), of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology, of drawing, of French, of Spanish, and of law, all of whom have one or more commissioned officers as assistants. There are also detailed on duty several officers of the engineer and ordnance corps as instructors in practical military engineering, military signals and telegraphing, and in ordnance and gunnery. A sword-master is also employed. The military staff consists of an adjutant; a treasurer, quartermaster and commissary, of the battalion of cadets; a quartermaster, surgeon, and assistant surgeon. In 1843 the custom which had prevailed of appointing one cadet from each Congressional district received the sanction of law, and thus the number was limited to the number of Representatives. But as the District of Columbia and the army and navy were not represented, the President was empowered to appoint 1 cadet from the former and 10 cadets “at large,” the latter to be selected annually from the army or navy, or any other quarter at his option, without regard to Congressional districts. The age for admission is from seventeen to twenty-two years, except when the candidate has served one year in the war of the Rebellion, in which case he may be admitted up to twenty-four, and the course of instruction is fixed at four years. Candidates must be able to read and write well, have a good knowledge of grammar, of geography, and history, particularly of the United States, and of arithmetic, including vulgar and decimal fractions. Examinations are held annually on January 1 and June 1. All newly-appointed cadets must report for examination by June 25, and none are examined after September 1, unless detained by sickness or other unavoidable cause, when they may be examined with the fourth class on January 1, and if found competent may proceed with that class. Each cadet on admission takes the oath of allegiance and binds himself to serve the United States for eight years, unless sooner discharged. For purposes of instruction, the cadets are divided into four classes, the fourth being the junior class, and for matters of discipline the permanent organization is that of a battalion of infantry composed of four companies. During their academic course cadets receive $500 a year and one ration a day. Upon graduating, the cadets highest in merit are usually commissioned as second lieutenants and appointed to the engineer corps, those next in order of merit to the artillery, and the remainder to the cavalry and infantry. Those for whom no vacancies exist at graduation are attached to regiments or corps as additional second lieutenants, and promoted second lieutenants as soon as a vacancy occurs in the arm to which they are attached. By act of Congress approved June 23, 1879, each member of the graduating classes of 1879-80 may elect, with the assent of the Secretary of War, to receive the sum of $750 and mileage to the place of his residence in lieu of an appointment in the army, except in the event of war, until two years after his graduation. There is also an artillery school at Fort Monroe, Va., for the training of officers and enlisted men. The school is entirely conducted by commissioned officers, and the course of instruction is one year.
Military Asylum. See [Soldier’s Home].
Military Asylum, Royal. See [Asylum, Royal Military].