The camp-oven in common use, consists merely of a very large naud, or pot, capable of containing from thirty to fifty gallons, and of rather a conical form. This vessel is prepared for the purpose, by having a hole punched through its bottom, large enough to admit a man’s arm; it is then placed, mouth downwards, over a corresponding cavity, dug out of the soil, so as to fit close every way; but, in order to allow a proper draught of air, two, or more, sloping apertures are left, passing under the circumference of the naud. The vessel is next well covered with turf, &c., and thus rendered capable of retaining considerable heat, long enough to bake small bread. The interior being filled with chips of wood, charcoal, gutties, (i.e. dried cow-dung,) or any other kind of fuel that may be at hand, a strong fire is kept up in it, until the naud appears to be nearly at a red heat. The hole, which served for a chimney, is then closed; and, the embers being withdrawn, the bread is introduced upon pieces of iron plate, or of tin, or boards, or leaves, &c., &c.
I should here remark, that the natives invariably eat unleavened bread, generally made of wheaten, or of barley-meal; which, being made into a good dough, is flattened into cakes, called chow-patties, between the hands, with very great dexterity. Such cakes are then either put at the edges of the heated choolah, or fire-place, or they are baked upon a convex plate of iron, circular, and about ten inches, or a foot, in diameter. This plate, called a towah, is precisely the same as the girdle made in Scotland for baking their oaten bread, and is used in the same manner.
Milk is to be had in abundance throughout India, especially among the Hindus, who venerate the cow, and follow all occupations relating to the dairy; but, owing to the general custom of smoking the insides of whatever vessels are allotted to its reception, will not be obtainable in such a state as suits the palate of an European, unless a clean pitcher, &c., be sent to the gwallah, or cow-keeper, that the cow may be milked into it.
That fuliginous taste, to us so obnoxious, is perfectly palatable, and perhaps agreeable, to the natives; who assign, as the reason for smoking their vessels, that it prevents the milk from turning. It, however, becomes a question, whether or not the operation of scalding, always performed when practicable, while the milk is warm, be not the true preventive against acidulation. Certain it is, that sour milk is very rarely found in India, although, for full half the year, the thermometer is generally up between 75°, and 95°, in the shade; and, in a Bengallee hut, frequently rising to 110°, or more!
The milk obtained from buffaloes is certainly much richer than that from cows; yet, the butter produced from the former is very inferior, generally white, and brittle: it, however, possesses qualities suiting it admirably to the climate, and occasioning the natives to give it the preference. After being warmed to a certain degree, so as to become rather liquified, it is kept nearly stationary in that state for a long time; whereby it loses its aqueous particles, and is rendered fit for keeping. When thus treated, it is called ghee. Others deviate from this tedious process, and, by exposing it to a greater heat, keeping it simmering for some time, effect the purpose more speedily, but not without danger of burning, or, at least, of giving it a certain empyreumatic flavor. Few of the natives will touch cow-butter, to which they attribute many bad effects, though they will drink ghee by the quart, and pride themselves not a little in being able to afford so luscious an enjoyment. The uncontrolled expenditure of this article, among those whose purses will bear them out in the indulgence, though it may tend to that obesity of which they are inordinately vain, cannot but contribute greatly to the generation of those bilious diseases which so often attack the more opulent natives. Ghee and idleness may be said to give birth to half their ailings. As an article of commerce, ghee possesses some claim to importance; many thousands of maunds being sent every season from some of the grazing districts, such as Purneah, and Sircar-sarun, to the more cultivated parts, and especially to the western provinces. The ghee is generally conveyed in dubbahs, or bottles made of green hide, which, being freed from the hair, and worked up while in a pliant state, into the form of a caraboy, such as we use for spirits of turpentine, &c., will keep sweet for a long time, provided the mouth of the vessel be well closed. In this manner it is conveyed by water in dubbahs, often measuring nearly a hogshead; but a smaller kind, containing, perhaps, from fifteen to twenty gallons each, are made for the purpose of being slung across the backs of bullocks, by which it is carried to places situated at a distance from navigable streams. The price of ghee varies according to the demand, and to its quality: generally, from six to eight seers of 2lb. each may be had for a rupee in favorable situations; otherwise, it will be from thirty to fifty per cent. dearer. It may be supposed that buffaloes’ milk must possess a very considerable portion of cream, when it is stated, that milk is considered very cheap at 30 seers (or quarts) for a rupee, and that five seers of ghee, equal to one-sixth of the mass of milk, may be had for the same sum, in almost any part of the country. According to this proportion, we find that one-sixth part of the milk turns to butter; whereas, in this country, a cow, yielding twenty gallons of milk within the week, will rarely produce ten pounds of butter; which is equal to only one-eighth part of the mass of milk: it must, indeed, be a good cow that will produce that quantity.
The d’hoob grass, which grows wild in almost every part of the country, is peculiarly nutritious; but the food of cattle, of all descriptions, throughout India, is more dry and solid than is offered to cows in England. Hence, though the quantity of milk yielded by a buffalo, may not be equal to that of an English cow of equal weight, the produce in butter, from an equal quantity of milk, will be in favor of the former.
I have already stated the difficulty of getting milk devoid of the taste of smoke; this arises from the cause already described, and is encreased by the very small proportion of milk yielded by the cows in India, which are, with few exceptions, white, and rarely grow larger than the generality of yearlings, or steers, bred in England. In some grazing districts they thrive well, attaining to full thirteen hands in height, and weighing, when fit for the butcher, from four to five hundred weight: but such are merely local, and not very numerous. Butter produced from cows’ milk is very indifferent, unless carefully made from such as are well fed. The number of gentlemen keeping dairies is extremely confined, perhaps less than ten for all India: they certainly obtain excellent butter, but that sold by the muckun-wallahs, (i.e. the butter-men,) would appear, to a stranger, not to be made from the same species of animals. Considering the price of a cow, which may be averaged at from four rupees to eight, (i.e. from ten to twenty shillings,) it is remarkably dear, as is usually the case with articles of inferior quality: thus, we consider three pounds for a rupee to be a fair rate, though sometimes four may be had; but such can only happen where cattle are very abundant; for, as I have already said, buffaloes, and not cows, are almost invariably kept by the natives for their milk, on account of their greater produce, and because the ghee made from their butter is more appreciated. We may, therefore, estimate the pound of cow-butter at nine-pence; whereas, ghee rarely sells for more than three-pence: a strange disproportion; to be attributed, in some measure, to the demand for the former being confined to the Europeans.
In speaking of the berriarah, or shepherd, I have already noticed, that, for the supply of their tea-tables, gentlemen usually keep a few goats, which afford milk of a remarkably fine quality, and are herded in company with those store sheep intended to supply vacancies among the fatting stock. The kids produced, generally twice in the year, by each milch-goat, (mostly twins, and not unfrequently trins, or even four, at a birth,) serve to keep up the number of the flock, besides yielding occasionally a most delicate viand for the table. I know not of any meat more sweet, or wholesome, than that of a kid allowed to suck the mother at pleasure: it is as white, and, in proportion, as fat as any veal. Being in general request, and admirably suited to making rich curries, as also roasting remarkably well, kid-meat may be had of any butcher; the usual price being a rupee for a whole kid, and in proportion for halves and quarters. When of a good size, and duly fatted, an entire one may weigh about six pounds; which brings the meat to five-pence per pound.
By the word butcher, we are not to understand the individual to be a shop-keeper, exposing the several joints of various animals for sale, in that pleasing mode of exhibition so common in our markets. On the contrary, a fat kussee (i.e. cut-goat,) or two, and two or three kids, daily, with, now and then, a half-fatted ox during the cold months, may be said to comprize the whole business of one of this profession in full trade; indeed, a first-rate knight of the cleaver! The greater part of the profit arising to this class, is derived from slaughtering oxen, calves, pigs, sheep, and kids, for families; for which labor they ordinarily receive a few annas, (or two-pences,) according to the size of the animal: in most instances they take the skin, pluck, and, of some, the head, as a perquisite.
It is impossible to produce finer mutton than is served upon table in India; nor can there be finer beef than is to be seen in most cantonments, and among fixed residents. At some of the principal military and civil stations, those gentlemen who keep a regular table, usually fatten several bullocks for winter slaughtering. Some of these are fed full two years, with that intent, on gram; and, exclusive of being burthened with fat on the kidneys, &c., have their flesh absolutely marbled by the admixture of fat among the fleshy parts. Sometimes, the officers of a regiment club to fatten four or five head, the joints of which are either divided according to mutual concurrence, or drawn for by lot: this supplies fresh beef during the winter season; very few bullocks being killed at any other time, on account of the extreme difficulty of curing the meat. To persons inexperienced as to the hasty strides of putrefaction in hot climates, this forbearance from beef, for so large a portion of the year, might appear unnecessary; but the fact is, that, during the close weather, prevalent throughout the rains, and for a certain part of the hot season, meat, though killed only about midnight, will often become absolutely putrid long before the time at which it ought to be on the spit; and that, too, in spite of every precaution!