In the ordinary buildings constructed in the upper parts of the country, a weaker kind of lime is obtained by burning a substance called kunkur, which, at first, might be mistaken for small rugged flints, slightly coated with soil. The experiments made upon these alkaline concretions, which abound in most parts above Bengal Proper, and, in some places, prove extremely troublesome to the farmer, but especially to the horticulturist, give the following result: calcareous earth, 41, cilicious earth, 16, calx of iron, 3, and air, 40. Kunkur is not easily reduced to a calx, it requiring a greater heat than is necessary to burn the harder kinds of gutty; it is, likewise, less durable and tenacious as a cement; of which the color, viz. commonly what we call fawn, is a strong indication.
Whether from want of sufficient power in their kilns, or that the kunkur is so peculiarly hard, we commonly find that, on slaking, a large portion of the interior of each lump remains unsubdued. These insoluble masses are often pounded by means of a dainky, or foot-break, and mixed with the perfect calx: nor is the lime burner very scrupulous in regard to keeping out the wood ashes, &c., remaining at the bottom of the kiln, after the kunkur has been taken out; on the contrary, he will, if not very narrowly watched, mix as much as he can with the calx; thereby causing the lime to be very considerably deteriorated. This kind of lime, commonly called cutcha, (i.e. weak,) sells for about six or seven rupees per hundred maunds.
In all parts of India, the lime-burners proceed on the most expensive plan; their kilns being rarely more than four feet in diameter, nor above that much in height: consequently, they have not sufficient accumulation, concentration, or reverberation of heat, to burn the stones properly; neither do they, in general, break them sufficiently small, but bundle them in, with very little attention to regularity or economy. It is the same with the brick and tile-kilns; which are, for the most part, of a pyramidal form; the raw bricks being laid intermediately with the fuel, and the exterior being plastered over, perhaps half a foot in thickness, with mud. The best bricks I ever saw in India were made by an engineer officer, who had some extensive public works to carry on. He first built the whole of the walls of a bungalow he required, with sun-burnt bricks, properly cemented with mud well filled in; taking care to arch over the door and window openings in such way, that the frames could be afterwards introduced. The whole interior was then laid with bricks and fuel, while the exterior of the veranda walls were also closed in with sufficient to heat them thoroughly; and a complete coating was given, in the ordinary way. The bricks baked uncommonly well, while the walls became a solid mass, capable of resisting all the elements, should they unite for its destruction. The bungalow proved remarkably dry, and the plaster was found to adhere in a surprizing manner, while rats, snakes, &c., were all set at defiance; it being impossible for them to burrow in so hard a substance: the greater part of the cement, which happened to contain cilicious particles, was nearly vitrified.
Thirty years ago, the generality of houses were coated with the same kind of tarras as is employed for laying the floors, and the roofs: this was made of chunam, (i.e. white-lime,) one third; soorky, (i.e. brick-dust,) one third; and sand, one third; these, being mixed duly with a large portion of cut hemp, (wool being very scarce, and short hair not to be procured on any terms,) together with some jaggery, or refuse molasses, made a tolerably strong cement. The surface, after a house had been duly plastered, was washed, while yet moist, with a strong solution of lime in water. This would have been enough to blind every man, woman, or child, in the place, had it not been partially remedied, by the admixture of some coloring matter with the finishing wash: but, whether red, yellow, or blue, which were the prevailing colors, it was found that the alkali generally destroyed their appearance, and left a motley kind of work.
The good taste of a few individuals, chiefly gentlemen in the corps of engineers, gradually overcame this vile imitation of Dutch and Portugueze finery, they substituting, in their public works, a plaster composed of river sand, saturated with a solution of white lime, of the consistency of cream. The addition of the usual allowance of cut hemp, gave this simple compound, (if I may so blend the terms,) not only much additional durability, but a remarkably neat appearance; especially when the body of the building was of that fine grey, thus obtained, and the cornices, &c. were finished of a pure white. Houses thus exteriorly finished became yet further neat, by the contrast of their Venetian windows, invariably painted green: some prefer all verdigris; others, a deep clear green for the frame-work, with verdigris for the several leaves, or valves.
Almost every house has folding Venetians to each window, or outward door; these are sustained by very strong hinges, which allow each fold, or shutter, to open outwards, and to lie back flat upon the exterior wall: in that position the Venetians are kept from blowing about, by means of hooks; in the same manner as we see practised in England, where this kind of shutter is in use. Sash-windows are never made upon the European construction, but move invariably in two folds, one to the right, the other to the left; each opening inwardly, and lying within the thickness of the wall, or nearly so.
In no part of the world is more attention paid to the foundation of a house than in India; and that not without necessity, the rains being so very heavy as to sap all weak buildings exposed to their action, either above, below, or laterally. When houses are built with what is termed cutcha, that is, with sun-dried bricks cemented with mud, and either plastered with the same, or with mortar, the least crack in the roof, or the smallest hollow near the foundation, will teem with danger. The rain which, often for a whole day, descends in streams, soon gets into the walls, where it does incalculable mischief: many of these houses, whose substance and general appearance should indicate a better fate, may annually be seen in ruins after a continued fall of heavy, or of drizzling, but oblique, rain: the latter is peculiarly unfavorable to such buildings as are insecurely coated; it drifts in under the plaster, damps the mud cement, and brings down the heavy roofs with a most sonorous crash. Few of these cutcha houses are now to be seen with tarras roofs; such as are so built for the sake of cheapness, being, almost without exception, intended for thatches, and thus becoming what we term bungalows. The natives build sometimes on that kind of half and half plan, which commonly, in the end, cheats the contriver. Thus, I have seen some, of a small description, built with cutcha (or sun-dried) bricks for the interior, while the exterior of the wall was made of pucka (or burnt) bricks; from whose interstices the mortar was carefully picked out, as though about to be pointed; for the purpose of causing the exterior plastering to get into the joints, and thus to retain its position firmly. Admitting, and even admiring, the ingenuity of such a system, when properly conducted, I lament, that, in almost every case which came within my knowledge, the whole system was disgraced, by the house either falling in toto, or by shedding its coat of mail.
There certainly did formerly exist some mode of mixing the ingredients, or some particular recipe giving better proportions, or better materials, which, after a time, formed a very capital cement: of this, many very well known edifices furnish ample proof. The old fort, situate within the town of Calcutta, may be an apt quotation. The impressions made by shots, of 24 and 32lb. fired by Admiral Watson against its western face, when his fleet lay within three hundred yards of it, in the year 1755, were absolutely insignificant; the brave admiral might have battered for a century, without bringing down the wall. In the year 1779, when the Company’s cloth godown took fire, the third regiment of European infantry, then in garrison at Fort-William, marched out with engines, &c. to aid towards its extinction; yet were they utterly unable to get the iron bars loose from the masonry; though provided with tackles, crows, axes, &c. This godown, which occupied a large part of the northerly face of the old fort, was afterwards converted into offices; but with incredible labor! The masonry was as hard as rock! When this occurrence took place, the old fort had been built about forty years; whereas, we find that all the Company’s, or any other, buildings which now claim that age, are of a very different complexion! The greater part of them, though not in a state of absolute ruin, are kept up at an inordinate expence; while such of them as have given up the ghost, display a crude mass of loose, friable, and mouldering rubbish.
Nor are the ancient terraces less obdurate than the old walls: many of these may be seen among the ruins of cities, and towns, of which we have scarcely any information, absolutely retaining their places, although the beams on which they formerly rested have been, God only knows how many years, removed. If these roofs had possessed any convexity, or been constructed according to the Syrian principle, we should have had less cause to admire their solidity, and toughness; but, such has never been the case with any I have seen; and which, though certainly of no considerable dimensions, appeared firm enough to sustain cannon of small calibre. I have often been one of a party to walk on such. It may, perhaps, be in place here to describe the manner in which roofs are constructed in India: I mean such as are now under consideration. The beams are rarely more than two feet apart; and, speaking generally, may have a scantling of ten or eleven inches depth, by five, or six, in width; sometimes, though but rarely, and then only when under the eye of science, cambered to the extent of three or four inches; according to the length of the timber. These joists are laid upon the bare wall, having their ends previously well charred; and, in some cases, smeared with petroleum; called by the natives, ‘earth-oil.’ This is done to deter the white-ants from making an attack upon the wood; which, in time, they would certainly do, but for the above precaution. The ends of the timbers are cased in with masonry, so as to leave about four inches all the way round, and at their bases: in order that the timber may be removed, in case of decay, without damaging the wall; the interval is, however, filled up afterwards with cutcha work; which, not being liable to adhere firmly to the pucka wall, may be easily removed when the joist is to be changed. When plastered over, the whole appears uniform.
In some parts of the country, but especially in the upper provinces, the natives cover in their houses with flat roofs, made of clay, beat very firm, and about a foot in thickness. This mode of construction requires some care, but is found to be extremely efficient. The walls ought to be substantial, as should also the joists; and the surface of the clay should be rather convex, so as to direct the water falling on it into proper gutters, or drains, and to prevent the building from being damped.