The powers and capacities that we observe in all the operations and works of God, are utterly inconsistent with the properties we discern in matter. In the works of creation we perceive evident proofs of thought, intention, contrivance, and design; which powers, we are sure, having no affinity with solidity, figure, and a capacity of being moved by the impulse of another, cannot arise from the composition or mixture of any of the known properties of matter. Not only the existence, but many of the perfections of God, may be discerned in various parts of the universe.
In short, we can say nothing higher of God, than that he is a Spirit. This notion leads us to conceive of him as a most perfect Being, and to reject concerning him whatever would argue any imperfection. It leads us to believe him to be perfectly immaterial, free from all the imperfections of matter, and from all the infirmities of corporeal creatures. But though spirit signifies a being of higher rank than body or matter, yet the word is too low to express the essence of God, any otherwise than analogically, or metaphorically. He is infinitely more excellent than the highest created spirits, being eternal, and immutable. But some may inquire, if God be such a Spirit, how is it that in Scripture we read of his having bodily members, and natural affections, like men; such as head, eyes, ears, mouth, hands, and feet; and the affections, or passions, of anger, grief, love, joy, &c? these are ascribed to him, or rather assumed by him. I answer; this is done in condescension to our narrow capacities; for if God should speak to us of himself, as he is in himself, our understandings could not comprehend him. As the inconceivable glories of the world to come, are explained to us by the honors and pleasures of this life; so the nature of God, by a gracious condescension to our weakness, is signified to us by a likeness to our own. By human members being ascribed to God, are implied the moral excellencies of his spiritual nature, or rather his operations, which are more sensible to us than his invisible nature. His eyes are emblems of his knowledge, wisdom, omniscience, and providence. His face indicates his favor, and sometimes is expressive of his displeasure, because both these appear in the countenance of a man. His mouth is the symbol of the revelation of his will. His hand, or arm, is indicative of the less or greater exercises of his power.—Such a Spirit is the Creator of man, whom he made in his image or likeness.
Whoever reflects with attention on the human soul, may easily perceive it to be of a nature entirely different from the body. Being immaterial, it is not compounded of material principles, nor consists of innumerable parts which may be separated from each other; neither is it capable of solidity, figure, extension, and other properties of matter; but is a simple, uncompounded substance, though possessed of various and distinct powers; and therefore is neither visible nor divisible, nor has it any dimensions or shape.
The soul has a power of thought, with which mere matter can never be endued. If it pass through all the changes, and assume all the shapes of which it is capable, thought will never be the result. It may be differently modified, framed, and disposed, but cannot think. “I find in me something that thinks,” says a celebrated author, “which neither earth, water, air, fire, nor any mixture of them, can possibly do. Something which sees, hears, smells, tastes, and feels, all which are so many modes of thinking.” Thought is the privilege of immaterial beings.[200]
This inward principle is capable not only of thinking, but of love, desire, hope, joy; hatred, fear, sorrow, anger, and a whole train of inward emotions, which are commonly called passions or affections. A something apprehended to be good in itself, or calculated to be beneficial to us, is the object of love. If that good be absent, it excites desire: if there be a probability of obtaining it, that produces hope; and the possession of the desired object yields delight and joy. Evil, whether real, or imaginary only, is the object of dislike and aversion. If there be any probability of this evil coming in contact with us, it causes fear; and if it unavoidably come upon us, it produces sorrow or anger. These passions or affections seem to be the only spring of action in the soul.
The soul has received from God a principle of motion, whereby it governs at pleasure every part of the body, and directs its operations: only with this exception, that all the vital motions, which are absolutely necessary for the continuance of animal life, are involuntarily going on, whether we advert to them or not; which is a marvellous instance of the wisdom and goodness of God. With the exception of these, I direct the motion of my whole body. By a single act of my will, I put my head, eyes, hands, or any part into motion: although the manner of doing this I do not comprehend. Every one feels that he has an inherent power to move this or that part of his body or not, and to give it a direction this way or the contrary, just as he pleases. I can, as I choose, open or shut my eyes, speak or be silent, rise up or sit down, stretch out my hand or draw it in, and use any of my limbs according to my pleasure, as well as my whole body. Matter may be moved, but it can never move itself.
The soul is free in its operations; it possesses this property, which is capable of being exerted with regard to all its faculties, as well as all the motions of the body. It is a power of self-determination, which, though not affecting all our thoughts and imaginations, yet extends to our words and actions in general, with but few exceptions. I am certain, that I am free to speak or not to speak, to act or not to act, to do this or to do the contrary, as I am of my own existence. I have not only what is termed a liberty of contradiction, but what is termed a liberty of contrariety, a power to act one way, or the contrary: to deny this would be to contradict the uniform experience of all human kind. The soul is not necessitated to judge or act by any bodily impulse. Let things appear as they may to the senses, the soul can suspend its judgment, till it has examined and considered them more thoroughly. Let the appetites and inclinations of the body strongly urge their own gratification, the soul can refuse their solicitations, and maturely weigh what the consequences would be. Let all the allurements of sensible objects, the assurance of sensual enjoyments, or the influence of custom and example, try to corrupt the integrity of the soul, and lead it astray from the paths of peace and purity; unless it consent, the attempts will prove ineffectual. We can reason, discourse, study, contrive, choose, and refuse with discretion; begin a work, and cease again at pleasure. We can reflect on what we have done, and either rejoice and delight in it, or be ashamed and grieved for it. We distinguish truth from error, moral good and evil; we fear punishment on having committed evil, and hope for reward on having done well. And, through the grace of God assisting us, we have a power to embrace and resolve to do good, as well as evil. We are free to choose whom we will serve, and, if we determine in favor of the better part, to continue therein.
Conscience is not a faculty of the soul distinct from the understanding, memory, will, and affections, but that power by which we are conscious of our own state, reflect on our actions, and pronounce them either good or evil. This supposes, that we are acquainted with the law of God, either natural or written, which is the rule of our duty. The name is derived from the Latin word conscientia, into which the Greek word συνειδησις is exactly translated. Both these words for conscience, signify, that the mind is possessed of a consciousness of the actions and thoughts of the man, and passes a judgment on them, according to some rule. The Jews have no proper word in their language for conscience, and therefore use the term heart; which is also used in the New Testament. Conscience is the journal or diary of the actions of man. Its office is, 1. To call, urge, and excite us to duty. 2. To testify and bear witness either for or against us, according as we perform or neglect our duty. 3. Either to excuse or acquit, or accuse and condemn us, on the evidence it gives of the moral nature and quality of our actions: if they be conformable to the Divine rule, as to matter and manner, it acquits us; if they be contrary to it, conscience accuses, condemns, and passes sentence upon us. 4. And if its sentence be true and just, conformable to rule, it is ratified by God the Supreme Judge, whose deputy and vicegerent it is in the breast of every man.
Though the soul is not under the imperious influence of the body, yet for many ages it has been allowed by sensible men, that “there is nothing in the understanding which is not first perceived by some of the senses.” The imagination is the place where the images of things are first engendered, and from which they are transferred to the understanding. And therefore those who want any sense, cannot have the least knowledge or idea of the objects peculiar to that sense: as they who never had sight, have not the least conception of light or colors. But there is a great difference between our senses, considered as the avenues of knowledge. Some of them have a narrow sphere of action: others a more extensive one. By feeling we discern only those objects which touch some part of our body; and consequently this sense extends only to a small number of objects. Our senses of taste and smell extend to fewer still. But, on the other hand, our nobler sense of hearing has a wide sphere of action: especially in the case of loud sounds, as thunder, the roaring of the sea, or the discharge of cannon: the last of which sounds has been frequently heard at the distance of near a hundred miles. Yet the space to which the hearing itself extends is small, compared to that through which the sight extends. This sense takes in at one view, not only the most unbounded prospects on earth, but also the moon, and the other planets, the sun, yea, the fixed stars, though at such an immeasurable distance.
But still none of our senses can reach beyond the bounds of this visible world. They supply us with such knowledge of the material world, as answers all the purposes of life. But as this was the design for which they were given, beyond this they cannot go. They furnish us with no information at all, concerning the invisible world. But the wise and gracious Governor of the worlds, both visible and invisible, has prepared a remedy for this defect. He has favored us with a revelation, concerning himself, his existence, perfections, and will; and another world, its nature, certainty, and duration: and this revelation is contained in the Scriptures. And he has appointed faith to supply the defect of sense; to take us up where sense sets us down, and help us over the great gulf. Its office begins where that of sense ends. Sense is the evidence of things that are seen; of the visible, the material world, and the several parts of it. Faith, on the other hand, is the “evidence of things not seen,” of the invisible world: of all these invisible things, which are revealed in the Oracles of God.[201] Though eternal things come not within the reach of sense, yet, by faith, they are as present to the mind, in their reality, excellence, and continuance, as if they were seen with the eye of the body. The testimony of the God of truth, is the foundation and reason of this faith; for what he says must be true, because he cannot lie: this is a principle concerning which all agree who own his existence.