[It is now generally admitted that there are forty distinct metals.
Some of these metals are the bases of the alkalis, alkaline earths, and earths. And as this class of metals is but little known to the great mass of readers, some remarks will be acceptable: they are recommended to his special attention, as they form the base of the only satisfactory theory of volcanos and earthquakes. The number of metals in this class are twelve.
1. The bases of the three alkalis, potash, soda, and lithia.
The base of potash is potasium. This metal was discovered in 1807 by Sir H. Davy. Its texture is crystalline; color and lustre similar to mercury. It is solid at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere; somewhat fluid at 70°, melts at 150°. Its affinity for oxygen is so great that it oxidizes rapidly in the air; and decomposes water instantly upon contact, emitting heat, flame, and light, as it swims on the surface of the water, being the lighter substance. In these cases it oxidizes and becomes potash, by abstracting oxygen from the air and water.
The base of soda is sodium. This metal was discovered by the same chemist the same year. It has the strong metallic lustre of silver. It fuses at 200°, and evaporates at a full red heat. It decomposes both air and water, but not so rapidly as potasium. When thrown on water it effervesces strongly; and inflames with light, when thrown on boiling water. In these cases soda results, which is the oxide of sodium. This metal is the base of common salt.
The base of lithia is lithium. This metal was discovered in Sweden in 1818, by Arfwedson. It is of a white color, like sodium; but oxidizes so rapidly as not to be kept in its pure metallic state. Its peculiar properties are, therefore, not so certainly known. Its alkaline quality is well ascertained, when in combination with oxygen, in which form it commonly appears.
2. The bases of the four alkaline earths, baryta, strontia, lime and magnesia.
The base of baryta is barium. This metal was discovered by Sir H. Davy, in 1808. It is of a dark gray color, very heavy, and attracts oxygen very strongly from the air, and from water, with effervescence, caused by the escape of hydrogen gas, and thus becomes an oxide which is the pure earth baryta, of a white color, and very heavy. Its intimate properties are not yet well known.
The base of strontia, is strontium. This metal is very much like barium, in color, weight, and power of decomposing air and water, and thus becoming an oxide, which is the earth strontia. Yet it is satisfactorily distinguished from barium.
The base of lime is calcium. This metal was satisfactorily obtained first by Sir H. Davy. It is of a whiter color than the two last mentioned metals; and like them decomposes the air and water, and thus becomes lime, which is an oxide of calcium. The base of common limestone is, of course, a metal.
The base of magnesia is magnesium. This metal was discovered by Sir H. Davy, but in very small quantities; sufficient, however, to determine its strong affinity for oxygen, so as to decompose water, and thus oxidize, and become the earth magnesia, which is a metallic oxide. The base of common magnesia is, of course, a metal.
3. The bases of the five earths, alumina, glucina, yttria, zirconia, and silica.
The base of alumina is aluminium. The existence of this metal was pretty satisfactorily ascertained by Sir H. Davy, and subsequently established by Wöhler. It is very difficult to obtain it, as the preparation is attended with intense heat and light. When obtained it is generally in small scales of a metallic lustre. It requires a great heat to fuse it; and when heated to redness in the open air, it burns with a bright light, and the product is an oxide of aluminium, which is pure clay, of a white color, and quite hard.
This oxide, or pure clay, is very abundant in the composition of the earth, though generally very much adulterated. It is found in all countries and used for making bricks, porcelain ware, pipes, &c. When pure it sometimes crystallizes. Hence it is capable of forming some of the most beautiful gems: as the sapphire and ruby, which are pure crystallized clay. Clay, then, has a metallic base.
The base of glucina, is glucinium. Glucina was first discovered by Vauquelin in 1798, and by analogy its base was supposed to be metallic, which has since been confirmed by Dr. Wöhler, who has obtained the base in the form of a metal. An. de ch. et de ph. Sept. 1828, as quoted by Dr. Bache, Turner’s Chem. p. 303.
The base of yttria is yttrium. This metal was obtained in a separate state by Dr. Wöhler, (See last quoted authority,) though its existence was inferred by Godolin who discovered the earth which is an oxide of this metal.
The base of zirconia is zirconium. The earth was discovered by Klaproth in 1789, and its metallic base clearly established by Berzelius 1824.
The base of silica is silicium. There exists some doubts among chemists whether this base is indeed a metal; but there is no doubt but that it is combustible, and that the earth silica, (or silex,) is an oxide. From analogy it would be inferred this base is metallic, and the evidence preponderates on this side. This oxide, or earth, is very abundant. It is more commonly called silex. It is the base of the whole class of primitive rocks, and almost altogether constitutes quartz, flint, &c.
The reader is now desired to recollect that this class of metals constitutes the bases of the alkalis, and earths; which are simply metallic oxides or a combination of oxygen with the metals. Recollect also that all these metals are inflammable, and some of them simply upon exposure to air and water. Now as the earths at the surface of our globe are the results of chemical action, in which the oxygen combined with the metals, it is beyond a doubt that these substances were created in their elementary and uncombined state; and that the act of combining would produce an inconceivable amount of heat, so as to fuse completely the whole mass of our earth; and in this state of fusion the oxides would commence forming at the surface chiefly; and thus by oxidizing the metals would form the earths, rocks, &c., which constitute, principally, the crust of our globe. When this crust became sufficiently thick it would protect the interior parts of the earth from oxidation, by preventing the access of air and water; and they would of course remain in a pure metallic state. But, (as is most probable,) if the materials, being promiscuously mixed throughout the mass at the commencement of the chemical action, should oxidize throughout, then the indurating of the crust, by cooling, would inclose the interior parts in a state of fusion, and in that state they remain to the present time. Nor is this astonishing when we recollect the earths are almost perfect non-conductors of caloric: of course it could not escape at all through the crust of the earth, formed of many strata of earths, in the shape of rocks, which, taken together, may be about eight miles thick.
If, by any concussion, or by percolation, water, or air should reach these metals in the interior, or these fused masses of matter, the consequence would be decomposition, and the production of a great amount of gas, and heat, which operating conjointly, first produce earthquakes by struggling to escape from the caverns in which they are generated; and when they find a passage, they would break forth into volcanos. This is the only true and satisfactory theory of earthquakes and volcanos.
It may be added, that this action would naturally bring to its aid the astonishing powers of electricity and galvanism.
The forty metals mentioned above, may be classed scientifically into two classes.
1. The bases of the alkalis, alkaline earths, and earths. These are twelve: potasium, sodium, and lithium; bases of the alkalis—barium, strontium, calcium, and magnesia; bases of the alkaline earths—aluminium, glucinium, yttrium, zirconium, and silicium; bases of the earths.
2. Metals, the oxides of which are neither alkalis, or earths. These are twenty-eight in number, and may be set down in the following order: gold, silver, iron, copper, mercury, lead, tin, antimony, zinc, bismuth, arsenic, cobalt, platinum, nickel, manganese, tungsten, tellurium, molybdenum, uranium, titanium, chromium, columbium, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, cereum, and cadmium.
Not only the first class of metals are combustible, but the last also. All the metals are now well known to be combustible bodies, and may be made to burn as really as wood.]
Gems are of a higher order than metals, of a more refined nature, and consist of two classes, the pellucid and semi-pellucid. Those of the first class are bright, elegant, and beautiful fossils, naturally and essentially compound, ever found in small detached masses, extremely hard, and of great lustre. Those composing the second class are stones naturally and essentially compound, not inflammable nor soluble in water, found in detached masses, and composed of crystalline matter debased by earth: however, they are but slightly debased, are of great beauty and brightness, of a moderate degree of transparency, and usually found in small masses.
The knowledge of the gems depends principally on observing their hardness and color. Their hardness is commonly allowed to stand in the following order: the diamond, ruby, sapphire, jacinth, emerald, amethyst, garnet, carneol, chalcedony, onyx, jasper, agate, porphyry, and marble. This difference, however, is not regular and constant, but frequently varies. In point of color, the diamond is valued for its transparency, the ruby for its deep red, the sapphire for its blue, the emerald for its green, the jacinth for its orange, the amethyst for its purple, the carneol for its carnation, the onyx for its tawny, the jasper, agate, and porphyry, for their vermillion, green, and variegated colors, and the garnet for its transparent blood-red.
There is not a unity of opinion concerning the cause of this difference. “Their colors,” says Cronstedt, “are commonly supposed to depend upon metallic vapors; but may they not more justly be supposed to arise from a phlogiston united with a metallic or some other earth? because we find that metallic earths which are perfectly well calcined give no color to any glass; and that the manganese, on the other hand, gives more color than can be ascribed to the small quantity of metal which is to be extracted from it.” M. Magellan is of opinion, that their color is owing chiefly to the mixture of iron which enters their composition; but approves the sentiment of Cronstedt, that phlogiston has a share in their production, it being well known that the calces of iron when dephlogisticated, produce the red and yellow colors of marble, and when phlogisticated to a certain degree produce the blue or green colors.
With regard to the texture of gems, M. Magellan observes, that all of them are foliated or laminated, and of various degrees of hardness. Whenever the edges of these laminæ are sensible to the eye, they have a fibrous appearance, and reflect various shades of color, which change successively according to their angular position to the eye. These are called by the French chatorantes; and what is a blemish in their transparency, often enhances their value on account of their scarcity. But when the substance of a gem is composed of a broken texture, consisting of various sets of laminæ differently inclined to each other, it emits at the same time various irradiations of different colors, which succeed one another according to their angle of position. This kind of gems has obtained the name of opals, which are valued in proportion to the brilliancy, beauty, and variety of their colors. Their crystallization, no doubt, depends on the same cause which produces that of salts, earths, and metals: but as to the particular configuration of each species of gems, we can hardly depend upon any individual form as a criterion to ascertain each kind; and when we have attended with the utmost care to all that has been written on the subject, we are at last obliged to appeal to chemical analysis, because it very often assumes various forms.[113]
The rich treasures of the earth are within it, observes a worthy author, so that they cannot be discovered and brought to the surface without the labor of man; yet they are not placed so deep, as to render his exertion ineffectual. Thus nothing but what is comparatively worthless is to be found by the indolent on the surface of life. Every thing valuable must be obtained by diligent research and sedulous effort. All wisdom, science, art and experience, are hidden at a proper depth for the exercise of intellect, and they who bend their attention to any of these objects shall not be disappointed in their pursuit.
The treasures of wisdom, which are displayed in the redemption of mankind by Jesus Christ, and recorded in the Divine Oracles, do not lie upon the surface of the letter, for every superficial reader to observe them: therefore our Lord says, “Search the Scriptures.” The word ερευνατε, compounded of ερεω, I seek, and ευνη, a bed, is, says St. Chrysostom, “a metaphor taken from those who dig deep and search for metals in the bowels of the earth. They look for the bed where the metal lies, and break every clod, and sift and examine the whole, in order to discover the ore.” In Leigh’s Critica Sacra, we meet with these observations, illustrative of the Greek word—“Search; that is, shake and sift them, as the word signifies: search narrowly, till the true force and meaning of every sentence, yea, of every word and syllable, nay, of every letter and yod therein, be known and understood. Confer place with place; the scope of one place with that of another; things going before with things coming after: compare word with word, letter with letter, and search it thoroughly.”
The Holy Scriptures contain the most invaluable treasures, a complete collection of doctrines, precepts, and promises, necessary to everlasting happiness. In this respect they have a peculiar advantage above all the writings of the most distinguished philosophers in the heathen world. The Bible presents an exact model of religion, for the instruction and common benefit of mankind. Here we have, in a narrow compass, all the things necessary to be known, believed, and practised, in order to our salvation; for it is, “a lamp to our feet, and a light to our path.” We are taught the knowledge of the only living and true God, his spiritual nature, adorable perfections, and endearing relations to his rational creatures: so that the meanest Christian who can read, may arrive at more true and just notions of him, than the wisest heathen sages could attain, who as the Apostle intimates, did only grope after him in the dark.—We are informed how Adam was created, how he fell, and what is the consequence of his transgression to all his posterity: the most celebrated heathens were not able to account for the origin of moral evil, as affecting the human race. The glorious plan of redemption by Jesus Christ is set before us, in its commencement, progress, and completion; which is the highest display of the moral perfections of God, and attended with the most beneficial advantages to man.—The rules of duty, all the agenda of religion, or things to be done, are plainly stated, and properly enforced. Promises, containing pardon, adoption, sanctification, and eternal life, are every where interspersed, and are “yea, and amen, in Christ.”
Our obligation to search the Scriptures, and by that means acquaint ourselves with their valuable contents, appears from the necessity and design of committing them to writing. St. Paul says, “All scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness: that the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all good works.” But how can they contribute to these important ends without being read? What effect could the mere writing of them have on mankind, to inform the judgment and regulate the life? How could Christian motives have proper influence, if the Sacred Volume were neglected? Is it not an insult to common sense, to assert that the Scriptures were written for our instruction and admonition, but it is not necessary to peruse them to learn what they teach? To have a Bible, and not to read it, for direction in the way of truth and holiness, would not be attended with any peculiar advantage. Precious metals, deposited in the earth, must be procured to be rendered beneficial. The Holy Scriptures contain the revelation of God to mankind, declare his will with certainty, and are the prescribed means of salvation: the Apostle says, “they are able to make us wise unto salvation, through faith that is in Christ Jesus.”