WRAP-AROUND-SKIRT: A rectangular piece of clothing made of skin, fur, or cloth worn by Hopewellian and Middle [Mississippi] women. It was wrapped around the body from the waist to the knees or below and was secured at the top by a belt or other means.
YUMA POINTS: Chipped [spearheads] of various general shapes including leaf-shaped forms, without channeling.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
| ADVANCED ([WOODLAND]) [PHASE] | |
|---|---|
| 1951 | Cole, F. C. et al in The Baumer Focus, in KINCAID, A PREHISTORIC ILLINOIS METROPOLIS, pp. 184-210, University of Chicago, Chicago (Baumer [Subculture]). |
| 1951 | Maxwell, Moreau S. The Woodland Cultures in Southern Illinois, pp. 232-243. Beloit College, Beloit, Wisconsin (Baumer Subculture). |
| 1951 | Ibid., pp. 78-183 ([Crab Orchard] Subculture). |
| Tennessee | |
| 1922 | Harrington, M. R. Cherokee and Earliest Remains on Upper Tennessee River, INDIAN NOTES AND MONOGRAPHS, No. 24, New York (Round Grave [People] or Baumer Subculture). |
| 1952 | Kneberg, Madeline. The Tennessee Area in Griffin, Ed., [ARCHAEOLOGY] OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES, p. 192 and Fig. 102., University of Chicago, Chicago (Round Grave, Upper Valley or Baumer). |
| [ARCHAIC] PHASE | |
| 1950 | Deuel, Thorne. Man’s Venture in [Culture], STORY OF ILLINOIS SERIES, No. 6, pp. 5-12, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. |
| 1957 | Deuel, Thorne, The Modoc Shelter, REPORT OF INVESTIGATIONS, No. 7, Springfield, revised and reprinted from Natural History, October, 1957, pp. 400-405 (Simple and Medial). |
| 1956 | Fowler, Melvin L. and Winters, Howard. [Modoc Rock Shelter], Preliminary Report, REPORT OF INVESTIGATIONS, No. 4, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. (Simple and Medial). |
| 1957 | Fowler, Melvin L. Ferry Site, Hardin County, Illinois, SCIENTIFIC PAPERS SERIES, Vol. VIII, No. 1, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. (Terminal Subculture). |
| 1950 | Titterington, P. F. Some Non-Pottery Sites in the St. Louis Area in ILLINOIS STATE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL, N.S. Vol. I, pp. 19-31 (Terminal Subculture). |
| Tennessee | |
| 1947 | Lewis, T. M. N. and Kneberg, Madeline. The Archaic Horizon in Western Tennessee, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville (Eva focus or subculture). |
| United States generally | |
| 1957 | Wormington, H. M. Ancient Man in North America, POPULAR SERIES, No. 4, 4th Edition, revised, Denver (Archaic and [Paleo-Indian] Assemblages). |
| [CLASSIC] (HOPEWELLIAN) PHASE | |
| 1937 | Cole, F. C. and Deuel, Thorne. Rediscovering Illinois, pp. 130-191. University of Chicago, Chicago. |
| 1952 | Deuel, Thorne, Ed. Hopewellian Communities, SCIENTIFIC PAPERS SERIES, Vol. V, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. |
| 1957 | Fowler, Melvin L. Rutherford [Mound], Hardin County, Illinois, SCIENTIFIC PAPERS SERIES, Vol. VII, No. 1, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. |
| MIDDLE ([MISSISSIPPI]) PHASE | |
| Cahokia Subculture | |
| 1937 | Cole, F. C. and Deuel, Thorne. Rediscovering Illinois, pp. 75-94, 111-125, 127, University of Chicago, Chicago. |
| 1928 | Moorehead, W. K. The Cahokia Mounds, University of Illinois, BULLETIN, Vol. 26, No. 4, Urbana. |
| 1939 | Simpson, A. M. The Kingston Village Site, Peoria Academy of Science, Peoria. (Privately printed.) |
| 1952 | Smith, Hale G. The Crable Site, Fulton County, Illinois, [ANTHROPOLOGY] PAPERS No. 7, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. |
| 1938 | Titterington, P. F. The Cahokia Mound Group and Its Village Site Materials, St. Louis. (Privately printed.) |
| Cahokia Subculture (Wisconsin) | |
| 1933 | Barrett, S. A. Ancient [Aztalan], BULL. PUBLIC MUSEUM OF MILWAUKEE, Vol. 13. |
| [Cumberland] Subculture | |
| 1951 | Cole, F. C. et al. Kincaid, A Prehistoric Illinois Metropolis, pp. 29-164, 293-366, University of Chicago, Chicago. |
| Cumberland Subculture (Tennessee) | |
| 1928 | Myer, William, Ed. Two Prehistoric Villages in Middle Tennessee, 41st ANNUAL REPORT, BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, pp. 485-614, Washington. |
| Cumberland Subculture (Kentucky) | |
| 1929 | Webb, William S. and Funkhouser, W. D. The Williams Site in Christian County, Kentucky, UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY REPORTS IN ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY, Vol. I, No. 1, pp. 5-23 followed by 36 figs., Lexington. |
| PALEO-INDIAN PHASE | |
| 1954 | Kleine, Harold K. A Remarkable Paleo-Indian Site in Alabama in TEN YEARS OF THE TENNESSEE ARCHAEOLOGIST, Lewis and Kneberg, Ed., reprinted from TENNESSEE ARCHAEOLOGIST, 1954. |
| 1951 | Smail, William. Some Early Projectile Points from the St. Louis Area, in ILLINOIS STATE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL, N. S., Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 11-16. |
| 1957 | Wormington, H. M. Ancient Man in North America, POPULAR SERIES, No. 4, 4th Edition, revised, Denver. |
| UPPER (MISSISSIPPI) PHASE | |
| 1927 | Langford, George, Sr. The Fisher Mound Group, Successive Aboriginal Occupations near the Mouth of the Illinois River, in AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, Vol. XXIX, No. 3, pp. 153-206, Menasha. |
| FINAL WOODLAND | |
| Bluff Subculture | |
| 1935 | Titterington, P. F. Certain Bluff Mounds of Western Jersey County, Illinois in AMERICAN ANTIQUITY, Vol. I, No. 1, pp. 6-46. |
| 1943 | Titterington, P. F. The Jersey County, Illinois, Bluff Culture, in AMERICAN ANTIQUITY, Vol. IX, No. 2, pp. 240-245. |
| [Effigy Mound] Subculture (Wisconsin) | |
| 1932 | Barrett, S. A. and Skinner, Alanson. Certain Mound and Village Sites of Shawano and Oconto Counties, Wisconsin, BULL. PUBLIC MUSEUM OF MILWAUKEE, Vol. 10, No. 5, Milwaukee. |
| 1928 | McKern, W. C. The Neal and McClaughry Mound Groups, BULL. PUBLIC MUSEUM OF MILWAUKEE, Vol. 3, No. 3, Milwaukee. |
| 1933 | Nash, Philleo. The Excavation of the Ross Mound Group I, BULL. PUBLIC MUSEUM OF MILWAUKEE, Vol. 16, No. 1. |
| 1956 | Rowe, Chandler. The Effigy Mound Culture of Wisconsin, MILWAUKEE PUBLIC MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS IN ANTHROPOLOGY, No. 3. |
| Lewis Subculture | |
| 1951 | Cole, F. C. et al. The Lewis Focus in KINCAID, A PREHISTORIC ILLINOIS METROPOLIS, pp. 165-183, University of Chicago, Chicago. |
| Raymond Subculture | |
| 1952 | Maxwell, Moreau S. Archaeology of the Lower Ohio Valley in Griffin, Ed., COLE ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES, pp. 186-187 and Fig. 100, University of Chicago, Chicago. |
| 1951 | Maxwell, Moreau S. The Woodland Cultures in Southern Illinois, pp. 78-172, 194-211, Beloit College, Beloit, Wisconsin. |
| [Stone Vault Subculture] | |
| 1935 | Thurber, O. D. New Type of [Burial Mound] Near Quincy in TRANSACTIONS ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, Springfield, Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, pp. 67-68. |
| 1910 | Fowke, Gerard. Antiquities of Central and Southeastern Missouri, BULL. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, No. 37, Washington. |
| Tampico Subculture | |
| 1937 | Cole, F. C. and Deuel, Thorne. Rediscovering Illinois, pp. 191-198, University of Chicago, Chicago. |
| ILLINI TRIBES | |
| 1934 | Pease, Theodore Calvin and Werner, Raymond C. THE FRENCH FOUNDATIONS, 1680-1693 (Memoirs of De Gannes by Sieur Deliette) pp. 302-395, Springfield, Illinois. |
| 1958 | Temple, Wayne C. Historic Tribes, Part 2 of Indian Villages of the Illinois Country by Sara J. Tucker and Wayne Temple, SCIENTIFIC PAPERS SERIES, Vol. II, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. |
| INITIAL (WOODLAND) PHASE | |
| 1937 | Cole, F. C. and Deuel, Thorne. Rediscovering Illinois (Red Ochre, pp. 57-69; Black Sand, pp. 69-75, 136-149; Morton, pp. 39-46, 126, 128-130; 102-104, 106-108), University of Chicago, Chicago. |
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL UNITS
| ARCHAEOLOGICAL UNITS | ||
|---|---|---|
| [ARTIFACTS][20] | RECONSTRUCTION OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FEATURES | RECONSTRUCTION OF RELIGIOUS, ARTISTIC, AND RECREATIONAL FEATURES |
| PALEO-INDIAN [PHASE] 50,000(?)-8000 B.C.(?) | ||
Narrow leaf-shaped [spearheads][Folsom] points[Clovis] points[Stone] hammer (?)[Flint] scrapers (?)Personal ornaments (?) | Thrusting weaponsSimple [family] (?)[Lineage] in male line (?)Big game huntingRoving habits following herdTemporary campsEnergy sources for labor, travel and transportation wholly human | [Religion] based on spirits, [mana] and on the [chief] game species hunted (?) |
| [ARCHAIC] [PHASE] 8000-2500 B.C. | ||
[Stone] hammers, rough or pittedBroad barbed [flint] [spearheads]Flint [dartheads]Flint scrapersFlint awlsChipped choppers[Spearthrower] (atlatl) weightsGrooved stone axes (ground)Ground stone celtsChipped flint digging tools (hoes)Small area settlement sites in the openRock sheltersPost holes in lineNecklaces and pendantsPlummetsCopper toolsDog bonesBone-awlsWhet- or abrading stonesBannerstones (with cylindrical hole)[Flexed] burials in Medial and Terminal [subculture] | Projectile weaponHunting of deer and small mammals and collecting edible plants, clams, etc.Technologies: flint-chipping, [pecking], [grinding] and [polishing] of [stone], grinding and polishing bone, boring bone and stone with [flint] drills and with tube, sand and water, making string (from hides and [?] plant-fibers), weaving (?), basket-making (?)Dog the only domesticated animalMarriage[Family]Extended family or [lineage]“Independent” local groupsWindbreaks or flimsy sheltersFamily hunting territoryRotating [hamlet]Non-political tribe“[Family-type]” [social control]Puberty rites (Initiation ceremonies)Tribal elders and temporary headmen[Insignia] possibly as social acceptance of personal achievement, or as family crest | Belief in friendly and ancestral spirits, in [mana] and in revelation by vision or dream[Sacred tradition] (“[mythology]”)The [shaman]—intercessor with spirits and healer of sick—magic medicinesFertility ceremonies—to insure abundant game and to perpetuate sacred traditionsRecreational activities and creative arts practiced chiefly in connection with religious ceremoniesFuneral rites for all deceased tribal membersSocially important persons on death given special care and preparation for burial, and possibly buried in a specially selected placeMourning [period] for deadFood and grave offerings left especially for important dead |
| INITIAL ([WOODLAND]) [PHASE] 1500-500 B.C. | ||
Elongated globular pots with pointed ([conoidal]) basesCopper ornamentsBurial mounds and cemeteries | Probably very similar to [Archaic]Copper breastplate or gorgetsSocially important persons buried in mounds (?) | Very similar to [Archaic]Dog graves in burial mounds |
| ADVANCED ([WOODLAND]) [PHASE] 1000(?)-100(?) B.C. | ||
Numerous storage pits containing acorn and hickory nut remainsMedium-sized settlement sitesPost holes outlining a square areaPost holes outlining a circular or oval areaFlat-bottomed flaring-walled [Woodland] pots (“flower pots”)Polished [stone] gorgetsBurials in settlement sites | Storage of acorns, nuts and seedsLarger population concentrations of perhaps a 100 or 150 personsSemi- to permanent log dwellings, logs uprightPossibly [insignia] or badges of leadership or individual prowess | [Religion] probably transitional between [Archaic] and [plant-raising] types |
| [CLASSIC] ([WOODLAND]) [PHASE] [HOPEWELLIAN] 500 B.C.-500 A.D. | ||
Chipped limonite hoesCharred maize kernels and cobs (and in Ohio, beans and squash seeds)Cloth and [feather cloth] remainsBasketry, matting and colored textile impressionsMarine shell vesselsTortoise shell dishesRiver mussel shell spoons with “handles”Excellent polished black and painted pottery with occasional variation of form—shallow bowls, beakers, [effigy] and globular shapesA coarser duty [Woodland] ware with elongated bodies and pointed or flattened basesLarge areas with village refuse and numerous moundsPost holes outlining an oval or circular area (rare)Pottery statuettes showing dress and ornaments worn[Jewelry] of copper, silver, meteoric iron, cut and polished shell beads, small marine [shells], bears teeth sometimes set with copper, pearls or colorful stones, etc.Ear ornaments of copper, etc.Marine shells from south Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of United StatesMica from North Carolina[Obsidian] from Wyoming (?)Copper from Lake Superior regionGalena from northwestern IllinoisNative pearls from river clamsGorgets of [stone], shell and copper (breastplates)Pearls and ground shell beads distributed over the torso of skeletonDeer antlers near human skull in graveCut maxillaries (more rarely mandibles) of bear or man on skeletons as if worn as pendantsCassis madagascarensis shell vesselsCopper hatchets and adzes etc.Platform type tobacco pipesMedium to large “dome-shaped” burial mounds enclosingLog (rarely stone) tomb chambersBundle burials and ossuaries in mounds with central tomb (northern Illinois)Cemeteries near mounds (southern Illinois)Bodies buried generally in [extended] position rarely [flexed] and often accompanied by pots, weapons and artistic products“Pipes of Pan”Beautifully chipped broad [spearheads] of special subtypesEffigy [dagger] with sheath made from bears’ teeth | Planting-raising [economy] supplemented by hunting and collectingCrops: Maize, beans, squash, tobaccoWeaving of cloth, basket- and mat-makingClothing: Wrap-around-skirt for women, [breech cloth] for men, supplemented by robes in cold weather, [feather cloth] robes in ceremonies. Mocassins for women and probably for men.Large villages (or clusters of villages) as well as small settlementsThe [wigwam] (for lower classes?)Possibly log cabin dwellings for highest social class, logs laid horizontal as in tomb chambersRise of wealth, rich and extensive tradeDug-out boats (?)Two or three social classes seem to be indicated by burial customsChiefs—a political form of government, with some of the clans, possibly bear, wolverine and bobcat, predominant in certain areasA tribe organized either politically or into clans with subsidiary districts or villages and political or clan chiefs.Chiefs may have worn deer antler headdresses.Chiefs probably wore feather headdresses, feather cloth robes, mantles embroidered with pearls [shells] and cut shell beads, and other [insignia] of office.Tomb chambers probably for chiefs with relatives and retainers slain to accompany them[Chief] person in tomb sometimes woman (May indicate matrilineal descent or simply ranking woman of highest caste)Maxillary (jaw) pendants worn maybe as trophies of [war] and hunt, or to indicate clan of a chief (?)Doubtless the pipe served (as it did later) as a safe conduct to visiting officials, travellers and traders, and a signature and seal to important agreements whether economic, political or intertribal | Probably a [formalized religion] based on the [chief] food plant, maizeRegularly appointed priestsThe [priest] probably wore feather robes and [insignia] of rank and position[Religion] probably included ceremonies connected with plant- or maize-raisingDeities or gods with special powers related to food-raising, etc.The spring or planting festivalThe green corn or first fruits festivalThe harvest festival and perhaps minor [festivals] revolving about the deerHigh-ranking priests were probably of the highest caste and their bodies given special care on death, elaborate funeral ceremonies and burial in the tomb chambers of mounds, with tribal mourningBeautiful pipes either with or without long wooden items probably figured largely in the religious ceremoniesShamans probably still practiced the healing [art] (and black magic). They probably used herbals instead of mineral medicinesHigh development of art in pottery, ceramic, copper and [stone] sculpture, in engraving on bone in personal adornment and technological expertness |
| FINAL ([WOODLAND]) [PHASE] 200(?)-1000 A.D. | ||
Boatstones and bar “amulets”L-shaped pipe, long-stemmedCrude [flint] [arrowheads][Flexed] and semi-flexed skeletons in [mound] graves and tomb chambersExcept for above, much like [Initial Phase] | Spear and [spearthrower] still the [chief] weapon, weights tied (?) to spearthrowerSmall hamletsBow and arrow known but as yet ineffective as a practical weaponOtherwise very similar to [Initial Phase] | [Religion] probably with shamans rather than priests and a mixture of Initial and [Classic] [Phase] religious beliefs and practices and superstitionsSome considerable sanctity probably still attached to tobacco, tobacco smoke and the pipeShamans undoubtedly still practiced the healing arts (as well as black magic) and possibly simple religious rites |
| MIDDLE ([MISSISSIPPI]) [PHASE] 1000-1500 A.D. | ||
Hoes of chipped [flint] and numerous digging toolsCharred maize kernels and cobsLarge settlement areas with flat-topped pyramidal mounds, with cabin remains on summits, surrounded by palisade remains in low ridges of earthPost holes and/or trenches outlining rectangular house floors. Fired clay from [wattle and daub] structure, burned house with charred thatch, timbers, rafters, mats, etc.Fire pits or fireplaces within houseFine polished black and painted wares with globular and flattened globular bodies, in many shapes—water bottles, shallow bowls, beakers, ollas or jars and [effigy] formsAn excellent, dull-gray service ware with similar varieties of shapesAn excellent storage ware of medium to large size, chiefly globular in formBusycon, marginella, olivella [shells] from south Atlantic and Gulf CoastsCopper from Lake Superior regionBusycon dippers and drinking cupsL-shaped pipe (“equal armed” and and medium long-stemmed varieties)Massive effigy [stone] pipesSkeletons, in [extended] positions, (distributed) in single and multiple graves throughout mounds and in cemeteriesPottery Vessels, weapon heads, [jewelry], and polished stone discoidals, etc. associated with skeletonsShell gorgets engraved with realistic and conventional designsRepoussee copper eagle gorgets or plaquesCopper sheeted ornaments and jewelry of pottery, bone, shell, wood and leatherPolished stone disks or “wheels”Ground and squared astragalus bone of deer and elk | Intensive maize growing with other crops supplemented by huntingRepeating weapon (bow and arrows)Energy sources for labor and transportation still entirely humanThe finer pottery and burials in mounds and cemeteries may reflect class differences. The extension of the pottery shapes from the fine black ware to the less decorative service ware may indicate an improvement of lower class conditions over those in Hopewellian timesClothing much like Hopewellian in general stylesLarge villages, small cities and small villagesLarge centers or cities had temples and tribal officers’ cabins on flat-topped mounds, and were protected by palisades and/or mud wallsDwellings semi- to permanent, with rectangular floors, vaulted or gabled roofs of thatch, walls consisting of vertical posts, [wattle and daub] construction, covered inside and out with mats, sometimes possibly bark-covered. Cabin remains numerous.Dug-out boats (?)Wealth considerable. Trade in fewer materials than in HopewellianTwo or three social classes present in population as in HopewellianProbably a political government with tribal and [war] chiefs and village chiefs. Head tribal [chief] may have been chief [priest] also, or a member of his [family] may have filled later office. War chief probably also member of ruling caste (as among Natchez). Other war chiefs probably of other classes, rank based on their past deedsTribal and war chief. In some villages, village chief possibly had dwellings on pyramid topsHeaddresses, probably with feathers, and regalia, including feather-cloth robes were probably worn on tribal occasions of importance[Calumet] pipe doubtless served as safe conduct to travellers and visiting officials, as seal and signature to important agreements. [Effigy] [stone] pipes may have been [Middle Phase] calumet pipe since it had to be smoked with a stemWar parties still of simple or no organization except leader and followers, object to take prisoners but not territory | Religious ceremonial centers or cities existed to which outlying smaller village populations journeyed for religious [festivals]Priesthood with appropriate dress and regaliaTemples or sacred groves for worship[Religion] with deities having special powers relating to maize-growing. Veneration or worship of ancestorsSpring, first fruits, and harvest festivalsTobacco smoke, tobacco pipes used in ceremonies as incense offeringsAthletic games form part of ceremoniesShamans still exist but chiefly for healing, etc. as among HopewelliansHigh-ranking officials and priests buried in graves in mounds. Usual preparation of body, burial, mourning periods, elaborated proportionately to the rank of the deceased.[Art] well developedGames of chance were probably known and played |
| UPPER [PHASE] 1100(?)-1600 A.D. | ||
Note: These are fringe groups in relation to Middle and Lower phases, living in more wooded regions perhaps, where game was especially abundant and topography less favorable to plant-raising by a backward [culture] and where the social impetus for high cultural development was largely lacking[Artifacts] are a mixture of [Woodland] and [Mississippi] typesGenerally a single pottery ware with both elongated and globular pots is characteristic and there is little other [specialization] of form | A hunting-collecting [economy] with [plant-raising] probably in garden-like plotsLarge and small villagesA social development similar to but simpler than the Middle [Phase], probably a combination of [Woodland] and [Mississippi] elements | A [religion] based on [plant-raising] but probably with considerable emphasis on [chief] animals hunted.Sacred groves and shrines, possibly temples in some of larger villagesNo pyramidal moundsDead buried in mounds and in cemeteries |
| CONTACT [PHASE] (ILLINI) 1673-1833 A.D. | ||
Note: The [artifacts] of all tribes in the historic [period] probably became gradually much the same regardless of their prior cultural [status] due to deterioration of native [technology] and trading of furs for European tools, weapons, cloth, etc.[Arrowheads] of chipped [flint], and native-made of European copper, brass or ironNumerous trade articles such as glass beads, gun parts, copper or brass kettles, bottles for wine, olives, etc. and other objects of European productionNative [stone] molds and cast lead balls (for guns) and native chipped gun flintsRectangular L-shaped (“Siouan type”) pipes of catlinite and other stone. Micmac pipes after 1700. | Bow and arrows preferred in [war] because they could be discharged more rapidly than gun could be loaded and fired. Guns and ammunition often not availableLittle knowledge of proper care of guns, and no attempt to manufacture guns and powder, or iron knives, copper kettles, etc.Society largely disorganized, prestige of chiefs largely a matter of personal prowess and reputation with some regard for earlier methods of appointment and succession. | [Religion] practiced by a fraction of tribe but falling into dispute without adequate substituteProbably appointment and succession of priests more or less regular and based on earlier customs. |
FOOTNOTES
[5]All dates, even those determined by radiocarbon methods, should be taken as only roughly approximate.
[6]These dates and those given hereafter refer to the earliest and latest sites known in Illinois for the cultures under consideration. Although supported by radiocarbon dating methods, they are only approximate. Undoubtedly also cultures in one area disappeared while they continued to flourish in another part of the state or in other states.
[7]Generally speaking, each succeeding higher [culture] in the area made most of the tool and weapon types of their predecessors, adding certain improvements and sometimes new types. The Archaic [people] used [flint] scrapers, chipped flint choppers, and native cobblestone hammers as had the Paleo-Indians. The narrow-bladed [spearheads] were occasionally made but the fluting or channel is practically always lacking. Polished [stone] forms, possibly the [spearthrower], were new inventions in Archaic times.