Albania
Between 1990 and 1992 Albania ended 46 years of xenophobic
Communist rule and established a multiparty democracy. The
transition has proven difficult as corrupt governments have tried to
deal with high unemployment, a dilapidated infrastructure,
widespread gangsterism, and disruptive political opponents.
International observers judged legislative elections in 2001 to be
acceptable and a step toward democratic development, but identified
serious deficiencies that should be addressed through reforms in the
Albanian electoral code.
Algeria
After a century of rule by France, Algeria became
independent in 1962. The surprising first round success of the
fundamentalist FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) party in the December
1991 balloting caused the army to intervene, crack down on the FIS,
and postpone the subsequent elections. The fundamentalist response
has resulted in a continuous low-grade civil conflict with the
secular state apparatus, which nonetheless has allowed elections
featuring pro-government and moderate religious-based parties. The
FIS's armed wing, the Islamic Salvation Army, disbanded in January
2000 and many armed militants of other groups surrendered under an
amnesty program designed to promote national reconciliation.
Nevertheless, small numbers of armed militants persist in
confronting government forces and carrying out isolated attacks on
villages and other types of terrorist attacks. Other concerns
include Berber unrest, large-scale unemployment, a shortage of
housing, and the need to diversify the petroleum-based economy.
American Samoa
Settled as early as 1000 B.C., Samoa was "discovered"
by European explorers in the 18th century. International rivalries
in the latter half of the 19th century were settled by an 1899
treaty in which Germany and the US divided the Samoan archipelago.
The US formally occupied its portion - a smaller group of eastern
islands with the excellent harbor of Pago Pago - the following year.
Andorra
For 715 years, from 1278 to 1993, Andorrans lived under a
unique co-principality, ruled by the French chief of state and the
Spanish bishop of Urgel. In 1993, this feudal system was modified
with the titular heads of state retained, but the government
transformed into a parliamentary democracy. Long isolated and
impoverished, mountainous Andorra achieved considerable prosperity
since World War II through its tourist industry. Many immigrants
(legal and illegal) are attracted to the thriving economy with its
lack of income taxes.
Angola
Civil war has been the norm in Angola since independence from
Portugal in 1975. A 1994 peace accord between the government and the
National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) provided
for the integration of former UNITA insurgents into the government
and armed forces. A national unity government was installed in April
of 1997, but serious fighting resumed in late 1998, rendering
hundreds of thousands of people homeless. Up to 1.5 million lives
may have been lost in fighting over the past quarter century. The
death of insurgent leader Jonas SAVIMBI in 2002 and a subsequent
cease-fire with UNITA may bode well for the country.
Anguilla
Colonized by English settlers from Saint Kitts in 1650,
Anguilla was administered by Great Britain until the early 19th
century, when the island - against the wishes of the inhabitants -
was incorporated into a single British dependency, along with Saint
Kitts and Nevis. Several attempts at separation failed. In 1971, two
years after a revolt, Anguilla was finally allowed to secede; this
arrangement was formally recognized in 1980, with Anguilla becoming
a separate British dependency.
Antarctica
Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was
not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and American
commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions
began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south
of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that
Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands.
Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in the early 20th
century. Following World War II, there was an upsurge in scientific
research on the continent. A number of countries have set up
year-round research stations on Antarctica. Seven have made
territorial claims, but no other country recognizes these claims. In
order to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the
continent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies
nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in
1959, it entered into force in 1961.
Antigua and Barbuda
The Siboney were the first to inhabit the
islands of Antigua and Barbuda in 2400 B.C., but Arawak and Carib
Indians populated the islands when Columbus landed on his second
voyage in 1493. Early settlements by the Spanish and French were
succeeded by the English who formed a colony in 1667. Slavery,
established to run the sugar plantations on Antigua, was abolished
in 1834. The islands became an independent state within the British
Commonwealth of Nations in 1981.
Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's five
oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and
the recently delimited Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (US
and Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are two
important seasonal waterways. A sparse network of air, ocean, river,
and land routes circumscribes the Arctic Ocean.
Argentina
Following independence from Spain in 1816, Argentina
experienced periods of internal political conflict between
conservatives and liberals and between civilian and military
factions. After World War II, a long period of Peronist
authoritarian rule and interference in subsequent governments was
followed by a military junta that took power in 1976. Democracy
returned in 1983, and numerous elections since then have underscored
Argentina's progress in democratic consolidation.